Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

Abram is a well-known biblical character whose life is detailed in Gen. 11:25 25:11. Abram’s name (which means “exalted father”) is changed in Gen. 17:5 to “Abraham,” meaning “father of many nations.”

The narrative account in Genesis details one hundred years of Abraham’s life and moves quickly through the first seventy-five years of events. In just a few verses (11:26–31) we learn that Abram was the son of Terah, the brother of Haran and Nahor, the husband of the barren Sarai (later Sarah), and the uncle of Lot, the son of Haran, who died in Ur of the Chaldees. The plot line marks significant events in Abraham’s life chronologically. He left Harran at the age of 75 (12:4), was 86 when Hagar gave birth to Ishmael (16:16), 99 when the Lord appeared to him (17:17) and when he was circumcised (17:24), 100 when Sarah gave birth to Isaac (21:5), and 175 when he died (25:7). In summary, the biblical narrator paces the reader quickly through the story in such a way as to highlight a twenty-five-year period of Abraham’s life between the ages of 75 and 100.

The NT features Abraham in several significant ways. The intimate connection between God and Abraham is noted in the identification of God as “the God of Abraham” in Acts 7:32 (cf. Exod. 3:6). The NT also celebrates the character of Abraham as a man of faith who received the promise (Gal. 3:9; Heb. 6:15). Abraham is most importantly an example of how one is justified by faith (Rom. 4:1, 12) and an illustration of what it means to walk by faith (James 2:21, 23).

Those who exercise faith in the living God, as did Abraham, are referred to as “children of Abraham” (Gal. 3:7). Regarding the covenant promises made to Abraham in the OT, the NT writers highlight the promises of seed and blessing. According to Paul, the seed of Abraham is ultimately fulfilled in Christ, and those who believe in Christ are the seed of Abraham (Gal. 3:16, 29). In a similar way, those who have Abraham-like faith are blessed (3:9). The blessing imparted to Abraham comes to the Gentiles through the redemption of Christ and is associated with the impartation of the Spirit (3:14).

(1) Son of Omri, king of Israel, whom he succeeded, reigning for twenty-two years (871852 BC). The summary of Ahab’s reign in 1Kings 16:29–33 serves as a prologue to the Elijah narrative, identifying the issue that Elijah addressed: Ahab’s patronage of Baal at the instigation of his foreign wife, Jezebel. Ahab is condemned by the writer of 1Kings in superlative terms (16:33).

(2)Son of Kolaiah, Ahab was a false prophet whom Jeremiah condemned in his letter to the exiles (Jer. 29:21–23).

A cult object as well as a goddess attested throughout the Levant.

In the OT, Asherah refers primarily to a wooden cult object (see Deut. 16:21). That these were objects and not trees is evident from descriptions of their (NIV: “Asherah poles”) being “made” (1Kings 14:15) and “set up” (14:23).

The Israelites were instructed to destroy the Asherah poles upon entering Canaan (Exod. 34:13; also Deut. 7:5; 12:3). Instead, they fashioned their own (1Kings 14:15, 23), assimilating them into worship of Yahweh (2Kings 23:6). Later efforts at removing the poles were sporadic and temporary (cf. 2Kings 18:4 with 21:3, 7). Despite the apparent pervasiveness of these cult objects, archaeologists have yet to retrieve one.

In a handful of instances, “Asherah” denotes a deity. In Judg. 3:7 “the Asherahs” (here indicating “goddesses”) is grammatically parallel to “the Baals”; likewise “Asherah” corresponds to Baal and “the starry hosts,” designating a specific deity (2Kings 23:4). In 1Kings 18:19 Elijah speaks of the “prophets of Asherah,” who presumably spoke in the goddess’s name.

A West Semitic weather and warrior deity. There is evidence that “Baal,” meaning “lord,” was a proper name for a deity as early as the third millennium BC and may have been identified with the god Hadad.

Second millennium texts from the ancient city of Ugarit depict Baal as a god of weather and storm whose provision of precipitation ensures the seasonal cycles of crops. The Baal Cycle from Ugarit also depicts him defeating Yamm, the god of the sea, and Mot, the god of death. Some of these associations shed light on polemics against Baal in the OT. Yahweh’s withholding rain at Elijah’s request (1Kings 17:1), for example, undermines Baal’s claim to control the weather. Further, descriptions of Yahweh as a storm god, such as Ps. 29, may be understood as polemical statements that Yahweh, not Baal, is the one who really controls the storm.

The worship of Baal alongside Yahweh received official sponsorship in Israel under Ahab (1Kings 16:3133) and in Judah under Manasseh (2Kings 10:18–27). The worship of this deity was grounds for the exile of Israel (2Kings 17:16).

The word for “blood” in the Bible is used both literally and metaphorically. “Blood” is a significant biblical term for understanding purity boundaries and theological concepts. Blood is a dominant ritual symbol in biblical literature. Blood was used in sacrifices and purification rites, and it was inherently connected to menstruation, animal slaughter, and legal culpability. Among the physical properties of blood are the ability to coagulate, the liquid state of the substance (Rev. 16:34), and the ability to stain (Rev. 19:13). Blood can symbolize moral order in terms of cult, law, and power.

The usage of blood in the OT is predominantly negative. The first direct mention of blood in the biblical text involves a homicide (Gen. 4:10). Henceforward, the shedding of human blood is a main concern (Gen. 9:6). Other concerns pertaining to blood include dietary prohibitions of blood (Lev. 17:10–12), purity issues such as the flow of blood as in menstrual blood (Lev. 15:19–24), and blood as a part of religious rites such as circumcision (Gen. 17:10–11; Exod. 4:24–26).

Leviticus 17:11 contains a central statement in the OT concerning the significant role of blood in the sacrificial system: “The life of a creature is in the blood.” Blood was collected from all animal sacrifices, and blood was poured onto the altar (Lev. 1:5).

The covenant with Abraham was sealed with a covenantal ritual (Gen. 15:10–21). Moses sealed the covenant between the Israelites and God with a blood ritual during which young Israelite men offered young bulls among other sacrifices as fellowship offerings (Exod. 24:5). Moses read the words of the Book of the Covenant and sprinkled the blood of the bulls on the people, saying, “This is the blood of the covenant that the Lord has made with you in accordance with all these words” (Exod. 24:7–8).

During the Passover observance at the time of the exodus, blood was placed on the sides and tops of the doorframes of the Hebrews (Exod. 12:7). Not only altars were sprinkled and thus consecrated with blood, but priests were as well. Aaron and his sons were consecrated by the application of blood to their right earlobe, thumb, and big toe, and the sprinkling of blood and oil on their garments (Exod. 29:20). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest entered the holy of holies and sprinkled blood on the mercy seat to seek atonement for the sins of the people (Lev. 16:15).

Many events in the passion of Christ include references to blood. During the Last Supper, Jesus redefined the last Passover cup: “This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins” (Matt. 26:28). Judas betrayed “innocent blood” (Matt. 27:4), and the money he received for his betrayal was referred to as “blood money” (Matt. 27:6). At Jesus’ trial, Pilate washed his hands and declared, “I am innocent of this man’s blood” (Matt. 27:24).

The apostle Paul wrote that believers are justified by the blood of Christ (Rom. 5:9). This justification or righteous standing with God was effected through Christ’s blood sacrifice (Rom. 3:25–26; 5:8). The writer of Hebrews stressed the instrumental role of blood in bringing about forgiveness (Heb. 9:22). In the picture of the ideal community of Christ, the martyrs in the book of Revelation are situated closest to the throne of God because “they triumphed over him [Satan] by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony; they did not love their lives so much as to shrink from death” (Rev. 12:11). The blood of the Lamb, Christ, is the effective agent here and throughout the NT, bringing about the indirect contact between sinner and God.

An uncastrated male bovine. The bull was an important symbol of the divine in Canaanite religion, and the infamous “golden calves” that were worshiped by the Israelites at Mount Sinai and then at Dan and Bethel were manifestations of this theology (see Ps. 106:20). In Ugaritic religion the god El was associated with the bull, and the god Baal with a bull calf. Although the Bible generally condemns the use of the bull as a depiction of the God of Israel, bull images were featured in the furnishings of Solomon’s temple, including the twelve metal bulls that supported the Sea (1Kings 7:25). Ahaz later sent these valuable objects as tribute to the king of Assyria (2Kings 16:17).

Bulls were used in several important sacrifices, including in the consecration of priests (Exod. 29:137), the sin offering (Lev. 4:3), the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:3), and the festivals of Weeks (Lev. 23:18), New Year (Lev. 28:11), Passover (Lev. 28:19), First Fruits (Lev. 28:27), and Booths (Lev. 29:13).

Bulls are powerful and dangerous animals (Ps. 22:12), and Israelite and Mesopotamian law codes mandated penalties for the owner of a bull that had harmed a person (Exod. 21:28–32) or another animal (Exod. 21:35–36).

A small, horse-drawn platform with various configurations throughout history with regard to size, construction, and purpose. The earliest known chariots are nearly three thousand years older than the racing chariots of the Roman Empire. They were bulky, four-wheeled carts pulled by mules instead of horses, making them very slow.

In the Bible, chariots often symbolize power and status (Gen. 41:43; Acts 8:2640). For example, the “iron chariots” described in Josh. 17:16–18 evoked dread among the tribes of Israel preparing to enter the promised land. Psalm 20:7 sharply contrasts trust in God and trust in chariots, which are a symbol of human power. Perhaps the most vivid depiction of chariots in Scripture is that of Pharaoh’s army descending upon the Israelites fleeing Egypt, and of his chariots’ drivers sinking into the sea (Exod. 14–15).

The OT depicts God as riding on a cloud (Judg. 5:4; Isa. 19:1; Pss. 18:1112; 68:4; 104:3), and as the creator and sender of clouds: “Ask rain from the Lord in the season of the spring rain; from the Lord who makes the storm clouds, and he will give them showers of rain, to everyone the vegetation in the field” (Zech. 10:1 ESV [see also 1Kings 18:44; Pss. 135:7; 147:8; Prov. 8:28; Isa. 5:6; Jer. 10:13]). Divine judgment is pictured as a dark storm (Isa. 30:30; Lam. 2:1; Nah. 1:3; Zech. 1:15).

At several crucial points God manifested his presence among the Israelites in the form of a cloud: in the wilderness (the “pillar of cloud” of Exod. 13:21 and elsewhere), on Mount Sinai (Exod. 19:9; 24:15), in the tabernacle (Exod. 40:34), in the temple at Jerusalem (1Kings 8:10), and frequently in the visions of Ezekiel (e.g., Ezek. 1:4; 10:3).

The NT continues the imagery of the cloud as a manifestation of divine presence in the story of the transfiguration (Matt. 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:36), and also in depictions of Jesus as a cloud-rider in Matt. 26:64; Rev. 14:14 (see Dan. 7:13). Jesus was hidden by a cloud when he ascended (Acts 1:9), and believers will be caught up by clouds at his return (1Thess. 4:17; Rev. 11:12).

Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).

Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).

A prophet raised up by God during the reign of Ahab of Israel (ninth century BC) in order to counter fast-rising idolatry fueled by the king and his foreign-born wife, Jezebel.

False worship at this time focused on Baal, a major Canaanite deity who was the god of fertility, having power over dew, rain, lightning, and thunder. Thus, as people turned to Baal for these life-giving forces, God shut up the heavens so there would be no rain in Israel (1Kings 17:1). God also at this time sent Elijah the Tishbite to confront the king.

Through the performance of miraculous acts, Elijah demonstrated that God was with him. The first such act was multiplying the food supplies of a widow who provided him with food. Even more dramatically, he prayed for the woman’s son when the child died, and the dead boy began to breathe again (1Kings 17:1724).

Elijah’s most dramatic moment came when he confronted Ahab and his many Baal prophets on Mount Carmel (1Kings 18). Yahweh fought Baal on the latter’s terms. The object was whether Yahweh or Baal could throw fire from heaven to light the altar fire. Baal was purportedly a specialist at throwing fire (lightning), and his prophets went first. However, because Baal did not really exist, they failed. When Yahweh’s turn came, Elijah increased the stakes by pouring water on the wood. Yahweh, the one true God, threw fire from heaven, which burned the sacrifice, wood, stones, and dirt, and even dried up the water. Soon thereafter, God opened up the skies so that it rained again. Even so, Ahab and then his son Ahaziah (2Kings 1) continued to worship Baal.

Elijah was a devoted servant of Yahweh. Before Elijah passed from this life, God introduced him to his successor, Elisha. When the end came, he did not die but rather was caught up to heaven (2Kings 2:1–18)—only the second person reported to leave this life without dying (cf. Enoch in Gen. 5:21–24).

Toward the end of the OT period, the prophet Malachi announced the coming day of the Lord (Mal. 4:5–6). As a precursor to that day, God would send the prophet Elijah as a forerunner. Some people thought that Jesus was Elijah (Matt. 16:14; Mark 6:15; 8:28; Luke 9:8, 19), but Jesus is the one who ushers in the kingdom of God. John the Baptist was his forerunner, and so it was he who is rightly associated with Elijah (Matt. 11:13–14). Indeed, his wilderness lifestyle and ministry echoed those of Elijah. At the Mount of Transfiguration, Elijah appeared to Jesus along with Moses; these two wilderness figures represented the prophets and the law (Matt. 17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36).

People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.

Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.

The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.

Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.

Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).

Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.

Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.

Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.

Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).

The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.

Physiologically, the heart is an organ in the body, and in the Bible it is also used in a number of metaphors.

Metaphorically, the heart refers to the mind, the will, the seat of emotions, or even the whole person. It also refers to the center of something or its inner part. These metaphors come from the heart’s importance and location.

Mind. The heart refers to the mind, but not the brain, and in these cases does not involve human physiology. It is a metaphor, and while the neurophysiology of the heart may be interesting in its own right, it has no bearing on this use of language. Deuteronomy 6:5 issues the command to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and strength. When the command is repeated in the Gospels, it occurs in three variations (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). Common to all three is the addition of the word “mind.” The Gospel writers want to be sure that the audience hears Jesus adding “mind,” but this addition is based on the fact that the meaning of the Hebrew word for “heart” includes the mind.

The mental activities of the metaphorical heart are abundant. The heart is where a person thinks (Gen. 6:5; Deut. 7:17; 1Chron. 29:18; Rev. 18:7), where a person comprehends and has understanding (1Kings 3:9; Job 17:4; Ps. 49:3; Prov. 14:13; Matt. 13:15). The heart makes plans and has intentions (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Prov. 20:5; 1Chron. 29:18; Jer. 23:20). One believes with the heart (Luke 24:25; Acts 8:37; Rom. 10:9). The heart is the site of wisdom, discernment, and skill (Exod. 35:34; 36:2; 1Kings 3:9; 10:24). The heart is the place of memory (Deut. 4:9; Ps. 119:11). The heart plays the role of conscience (2Sam. 24:10; 1John 3:2021).

It is often worth the effort to substitute “mind” for “heart” when reading the Bible in order to grasp the mental dimension. For example, after telling the Israelites to love God with all their heart, Moses says, “These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts” (Deut. 6:6). Reading it instead as “be on your mind” changes our perspective, and in this case the idiom “on your mind” is clearer and more accurate. The following verses instruct parents to talk to their children throughout the day about God’s words. In order for parents to do this, God’s requirements and deeds need to be constantly on their minds, out of their love for him. Similarly, love for God and loyalty are expressed by meditation on and determination to obey his law (Ps. 119:11, 112). The law is not merely a list of rules; it is also a repository of a worldview in which the Lord is the only God. To live consistently with this truth requires careful, reflective thought.

Emotions and attitude. The heart, as the seat of emotion, is associated with a number of feelings and sentiments, such as gladness (Exod. 4:14; Acts 2:26), hatred (Lev. 19:17), pride (Deut. 8:14), resentment (Deut. 15:10), dread (Deut. 28:67), sympathy (Judg. 5:9), love (Judg. 16:15), sadness (1Sam. 1:8; John 16:6), and jealousy and ambition (James 3:14). The heart is also the frame of reference for attitudes such as willingness, courage, and desire.

The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2Cor. 12:24, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.

Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).

Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1Thess. 4:14).

Along with Abraham and Jacob, Isaac is a central character in the narratives of Gen. 1235. Isaac is the offspring of Abraham and Sarah, the fulfillment of a promise from God of an heir for Abraham (15:4). The promise of offspring is one component in a set (protection and land being some of the others), the provisions of a covenant between God and the patriarchs (12:1–3; 17:1–8; 26:2–5). The name “Isaac” is associated with the verb for “laugh” (21:3–7), referring to Sarah’s reaction upon hearing the promise of a child coming well beyond her childbearing years (18:9–15). Sarah’s incredulity, and Abraham’s sympathy to it, may be witnessed by their attempt to enact fulfillment to the promise through the insemination of Hagar, Sarah’s slave (16:1–4, 16).

In the narratives of Gen. 12–35 Isaac is the least prominent of the patriarchs. The main event of his life is encapsulated in the incident known as the Akedah, the “binding” (22:1–19). Abraham demonstrates his loyalty to God by complying with a command to offer Isaac as a sacrifice on Mount Moriah. After an initial inquiry about the absence of a sacrificial beast, Isaac (apparently) passively follows Abraham’s directions in compliance with God’s will. A divine emissary, however, halts Abraham’s actions just prior to the slaying of Isaac.

The procurement of Isaac’s wife, Rebekah, by Abraham’s servant is found in Gen. 24:1–67. Like Abraham, Isaac describes his wife as a sister in order to deflect danger to his person (26:6–11; cf. 12:10–16; 20:1–18). Rebekah bears two sons to Isaac, Esau and Jacob (25:21–26). Through the instigation and cooperation of Rebekah, Jacob tricks Isaac into conferring a blessing upon him, one originally intended for Esau (27:1–30).

The foreign-born wife of Ahab, a ninth-century BC king of Israel. Jezebel was the daughter of King Ethbaal of Sidon. She was a devout worshiper of the god Baal, whose religion she promoted in Israel after marrying Ahab. Many people were persuaded to add the worship of Baal to the worship of Yahweh, the true God of Israel. God raised up two prophets during this time, Elijah and Elisha, who resisted the encroachment of her false religion.

Jezebel was evil and a worshiper of false gods. In the NT she became an exemplar of wickedness. Revelation 2:20 associates a woman prophet in Thyatira with Jezebel because she was leading the people astray by her teaching.

God begins his creation with light, which precedes the creation of sun, moon, and stars and throughout Scripture is an unqualified good (Gen. 1:35, 15–18; Exod. 10:23; 13:21). In the ancient world, people rarely traveled at night and usually went to bed soon after sunset. The only light in the home was a small oil lamp set on a stand, which burned expensive olive oil. Light is a biblical synonym for life (Job 3:20; John 8:12). Seeing the light means living (Ps. 49:19; see also Job 33:30). Conversely, darkness is often a symbol of adversity, disaster, and death (Job 30:26; Isa. 8:22; Jer. 23:12; Lam. 3:2).

John, who offers perhaps the most profound meditations on light, claims that God is light (1John 1:5). The predicate appropriates the intrinsic beauty of light, a quality that draws people’s hearts back to the author of beauty. For the apostle, light represents truth and signifies God’s will in opposition to the deception of the world (John 1:9; 12:46). Light stands for purity and signifies God’s holiness as opposed to the unrighteousness of the world (John 3:19–21). Light is where God is, and it radiates from the place of fellowship between God and his creation (John 1:7).

The words “sacrifice” and “offering” often are used interchangeably, but “offering” refers to a gift more generally, while “sacrifice” indicates a gift consecrated for a divine being. Sacrifices were offered to honor God, thanking him for his goodness. More important, they enabled persons to be made right with God by atoning for their sins. Whereas sin upset the fellowship God desired to have with people and kindled his wrath, sacrifice restored the relationship.

Leviticus introduced five main sacrifices: the ’olah (1:1 17; 6:8–18), the minkhah (2:1–16; 6:14–23), the shelamim (3:1–17; 7:11–36), the khatta’t (4:1–5:13), and the ’asham (5:14–6:7). Most of these focused on uncleanness or sin. The worshiper who brought such an offering was not allowed to eat any of it, as it was wholly given to God. Even when priests were allowed to eat part of a sacrifice, their portion was “waved” before God, indicating that it belonged to him.

1. The ’olah, or burnt offering, is the basic OT sacrifice connected with atonement for sin (Lev. 1:4). When rightly offered, it was accepted as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.” The worshiper brought a male animal (young bull, sheep, goat, dove, or young pigeon) without blemish, laid a hand upon it, and then killed it. After the priest sprinkled some of the blood on the altar, the rest was burned up.

2. The minkhah is simply a gift or offering. The Hebrew word is often used for a present given to another person or tribute to a ruler. When used of sacrifice, it is usually rendered as “grain offering” or “meal offering.” A minkhah can, on occasion, include flesh or fat (Gen. 4:4; Judg. 6:18–21). Considered “an aroma pleasing to the Lord,” it consisted of unground grain or fine flour mixed with oil and incense and was presented either cooked or uncooked. Part of the offering was burned as a “memorial portion,” the rest being given to the priests (Lev. 2:1–3). It usually was accompanied by a drink offering—wine poured out on the altar. Grain offerings frequently complemented burnt offerings or fellowship offerings. The showbread may have been considered a grain offering.

3. The shelamim (NIV: “fellowship offering”) has traditionally been called the “peace offering,” as the term is related to shalom. This offering most likely indicated that the worshiper was at peace with God and others; all the worshiper’s relationships were whole. Classified into three types, it could be used to express thanksgiving, to signify the fulfillment of a vow, or simply to denote one’s desire to bring an offering to God out of free will. Only those who made a vow were required to offer a shelamim; the other forms were wholly optional. The worshiper brought a male or female animal (ox, sheep, or goat) without blemish, laid a hand on its head, and slaughtered it. The priest sprinkled its blood on the sides of the altar and burned the fat surrounding the major organs. It is described as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.”

This offering significantly recognized the covenant relationship existing between those who shared in it. God received the fatty portions, the officiating priest received the right thigh, the other priests the breast, and the remainder was shared among members of a family, clan, tribe, or some other group.

4. The khatta’t, or sin offering, atoned for the sin of an individual or of the nation and cleansed the sacred items in the tabernacle that had been corrupted by sin. Since a sin offering could purify ceremonial as well as moral uncleanness, people who were unclean due to childbirth, skin diseases, bodily discharges, and so forth also brought them (Lev. 12–15).

5. The ’asham, or guilt offering, provided compensation for sins. A ram without blemish was sacrificed, its blood was sprinkled on the altar, and its fatty portions, kidneys, and liver were burned. The rest was given to the priest. In addition, the value of what was misappropriated plus one-fifth of its value was given to the person wronged or to the priests.

Christians quickly came to understand Christ’s death as the final sacrifice that completed the OT system. Various NT authors consider the nature of Christ’s death and metaphorically relate it to OT sacrifices, but the writer of Hebrews develops this in the most detail. According to Hebrews, the sacrificial system was merely the shadow that pointed to Jesus. Although the blood of animals could not adequately deal with sins, Jesus’ sacrifice could (Heb. 10:1–10). Jesus is regularly identified as the sacrificial lamb whose blood purifies humanity from sin (John 1:29, 36; Rom. 8:3; 1Cor. 5:7; Eph. 5:2; 1Pet. 1:19; 1John 1:7; Rev. 5:6, 12; 7:14; 12:11; 13:8). His sacrifice is considered a propitiation that turns away God’s wrath (Rom. 3:25; 1John 2:2).

A prophet is a messenger of God, a person to whom God entrusts his message to an individual or to a nation. Indeed, the last book in the OT is named “Malachi,” which means “my messenger.” Isaiah heard God ask, “Whom shall I send?” and he cried out, “Send me!” (Isa. 6:8). A good template for understanding the phenomenon is Moses and Aaron. Moses was to tell Aaron what to say, and Aaron would say it. “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet’” (Exod. 7:1).

In the NT period there were a number of prophets. John the Baptist could point to Jesus and proclaim him to be the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29). Agabus the prophet predicted a famine and, later, Paul’s arrest (Acts 11:28; 21:1011).

Paul lists “gifts of the Spirit” (1Cor. 12:4–11), including prophecy and various phenomena reminiscent of the OT prophets’ ecstatic state. Paul warns the Corinthians not to overdo this sort of thing and so to be mature (1Cor. 14:19–20). Near the end of his life, in one of his last letters, he speaks of prophecy as normative in the church, particularly in establishing an authoritative body of elders to rule and especially to preach the gospel (1Tim. 1:18; 4:14). Peter draws a connection between the ministry of the OT prophets and the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ (1Pet. 1:10–12). Evangelism seems to be the normative mode for prophecy today: forthtelling by calling people to turn from their sins to Jesus, and foretelling by speaking of his return and the final judgment.

Thus, all Christians hold the office of prophet, even if they never participate in the ecstatic state experienced by the Corinthians. The greatness of a prophet is in how clearly the prophet points to Jesus. John the Baptist was the greatest of the OT prophets by that measure, but any Christian on this side of the cross and resurrection can proclaim the gospel even more clearly. Thus, the prophetic ministry of any Christian is greater than John’s (Matt. 11:11).

Five prophetesses are mentioned in the OT: Miriam (Exod. 15:20), Deborah (Judg. 4–5), Huldah (2Kings 22:14–20; 2Chron. 34:22–28), Isaiah’s wife (Isa. 8:3), and Noadiah (Neh. 6:14).

Similarly in the NT, Peter recognizes God’s promise through Joel being fulfilled in the gift of prophetic speech to women as well as men at Pentecost (Acts 2:18); and Paul, acknowledging that women prophesy publicly in the congregation, is concerned only with the manner of their doing so (1Cor. 11:5). The prophetess Anna proclaims the baby Jesus as the Messiah (Luke 2:36–38), Luke reports that the four unmarried daughters of Philip the evangelist also prophesy (Acts 21:8–9). The only false prophetess in the NT is the apocalyptic figure of Jezebel in Rev. 2:20.

In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such as Israel, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periods could be hoped for each year, in February/March and in October/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a good crop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’s promise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4). Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of this promise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would be given to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:3536).

Rain could also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives, where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the face of the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rain accompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).

Since rain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbol of God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A striking example of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three years the rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in God was vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. The effectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and later for rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James 5:17–18).

There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:111; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Sabbath Year, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).

Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim. 1:10–11).

Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).

The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.

Water is mentioned extensively in the Bible due to its prevalence in creation and its association with life and purity. The cosmic waters of Gen. 1 are held back by the sky (Gen. 1:67; cf. Pss. 104:6, 13; 148:4). God is enthroned on these waters in his cosmic temple (Pss. 29:10; 104:3, 13; cf. Gen. 1:2; Ps. 78:69; Isa. 66:1). These same waters were released in the time of Noah (Gen. 7:10–12; Ps. 104:7–9).

Water is also an agent of life and fertility and is therefore associated with the presence of God. Both God himself and his temple are described as the source of life-giving water (Jer. 2:13; 17:13; Joel 3:18; cf. Isa. 12:2–3). Ezekiel envisions this water flowing from beneath the temple and streaming down into the Dead Sea, where it brings life and fecundity (Ezek. 47:1–12; cf. Zech. 14:8). The book of Revelation, employing the same image, describes “the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb” (22:1). This imagery is also illustrated in archaeological remains associated with temples. Cisterns are attested beneath the Dome of the Rock (presumably the location of the Jerusalem temple) and beneath the Judahite temple at Arad. Other temples, such as the Israelite high place at Tel Dan, are located close to freshwater springs. The Gihon spring in the City of David may also be associated with the Jerusalem temple (Ps. 46:4; cf. Gen. 2:13).

This OT imagery forms the background for Jesus’ teaching regarding eternal life in the writings of the apostle John. Jesus claims to be the source of living water, and he offers it freely to everyone who thirsts (John 4:10–15; 7:37; Rev. 21:6; 22:17; cf. Rev. 7:17). This water, which produces “a spring of water welling up to eternal life” (John 4:14), is the work of the Holy Spirit in the believer (John 7:38–39).

Water is also described in the Bible as an agent of cleansing. It is extensively employed in purification rituals in the OT. In the NT, the ritual of water baptism signifies the purity and new life of the believer (Matt. 3:11, 16; Mark 1:8–10; Luke 3:16; John 1:26, 31–33; 3:23; Acts 1:5; 8:36–39; 10:47; 11:16; 1Pet. 3:20–21; cf. Eph. 5:26; Heb. 10:22).

Finally, the NT also reveals Jesus as the Lord of water. He walks on water (Matt. 14:28–29; John 6:19), turns water into wine (John 2:7–9; 4:46), and controls water creatures (Matt. 17:27; John 21:6). Most important, Jesus commands “the winds and the water, and they obey him” (Luke 8:25; cf. Ps. 29:3).

“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).

The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.

The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).

Altars were places of sacrifice and worship constructed ofvarious materials. They could be either temporary or permanent. Somealtars were in the open air; others were set apart in a holy place.They could symbolize either God’s presense and protection orfalse worship that would lead to God’s judgment.

OldTestament

Noahand the patriarchs. Thefirst reference in the Bible is to an altar built by Noah after theflood (Gen. 8:20). This action suggests the sanctuary character ofthe mountain on which the ark landed, so that theologically the ark’sresting place was a (partial) return to Eden. The purpose of theextra clean animals loaded onto the ark was revealed (cf. 7:2–3).They were offered up as “burnt offerings,” symbolizingself-dedication to God at this point of new beginning for the humanrace.

Abrambuilt altars “to the Lord” at places where God appearedand spoke to him (Gen. 12:7) and where he encamped (12:8; 13:3–4,18). No sacrifice is explicitly mentioned in association with thesealtars. Thus, they may have had the character of monuments ormemorials of significant events. In association with Abram’saltars, he is said to have “called on the name of the Lord”(12:8)—that is, to pray. The elaborate cultic proceduresassociated with later Israelite altars (e.g., the mediation ofpriests) were absent in the patriarchal period. Succeedinggenerations followed the same practices: Isaac (26:25) and Jacob(33:20; 34:1, 3, 7). God’s test of Abraham involved the demandthat he sacrifice his son Isaac as a burnt offering. In obedience,Abraham built an altar for this purpose, but through God’sintervention a reprieve was granted, and a ram was substituted (22:9,13). Moses erected an altar after the defeat of Amalek at Rephidim,to commemorate this God-given victory (Exod. 17:15–16).

Mosesand the tabernacle.In the context of making the covenant with Israel at Sinai, God gaveMoses instructions on how to construct an altar (Exod. 20:24–26;cf. Josh. 8:31). It could be “an altar of earth” (ofsun-dried mud-brick construction?) or else made of loose naturalstones. The Israelites were expressly forbidden to use hewn stones,perhaps for fear of an idolatrous image being carved (making thisprohibition an application of Exod. 20:4; cf. Deut. 27:5–6).Even if the altar was large, it was not to be supplied with steps forthe priest to ascend, lest his nakedness be shown to God. Therequirement that priests wear undergarments reflects the same concern(Exod. 28:42–43). An altar made of twelve stones, the numberrepresenting the number of the tribes of Israel, was built by Mosesfor the covenant-making ceremony (Exod. 24:4), in which half theblood of the sacrifice was sprinkled on the altar (representing God?)and the other half on the people, the action symbolizing the covenantbond created (24:6–8).

Forthe tabernacle, a portable “altar of burnt offering” wasmade (Exod. 27:1–8; 38:1–7). It had wooden framessheathed in bronze and featured a horn at each corner. There was aledge around the altar halfway up its sides, from which was hungbronze grating, and it had four bronze rings into which poles wereslipped for transport. As part of the cultic ritual, blood wassmeared on the horns (29:12). This altar stood in the open air in thecourtyard of the tabernacle, near the entrance to the tabernacle.Included among the tabernacle furnishings was a smaller “altarof incense,” with molding around the top rim (30:1–10;37:25–28). This altar was, however, overlaid with gold, for itstood closer to God’s ritual presence, inside the tabernacle,“in front of the curtain that shields the Ark of the Covenantlaw,” the curtain that separated the most holy place from theholy place. The high priest placed fragrant incense on this altarevery morning and evening. The fact that this was a daily procedureand the description of the positioning of the tabernacle furnishingsin Exod. 40:26–28 (mentioning the altar of incense afterspeaking about the lampstand) might be taken as implying that theincense altar was in the holy place, but 1 Kings 6:22 and Heb.9:4 suggest that it was actually in the most holy place, near theark.

God,through Moses, instructed the people that on entering the PromisedLand they were to destroy all Canaanite altars along with the otherparaphernalia of their pagan worship (Deut. 7:5; 12:3). Bronze Agealtars discovered at Megiddo include horned limestone incense altarsand a large circular altar mounted by a flight of steps. In Josh. 22the crisis caused by the building of “an imposing altar”by the Transjordanian tribes was averted when these tribes explainedto the rest of the Israelites that it was intended as a replica ofthe altar outside the tabernacle and not for the offering ofsacrifices. The worship of all Israel at the one sanctuary bothexpressed and protected the religious unity and purity of the nationat this vital early stage of occupation of the land. In laternarratives, however, Gideon (Judg. 6), Samuel (1 Sam. 7:17),Saul (1 Sam. 14:35), and David (2 Sam. 24) are said tobuild altars for sacrifice and to have done so with impunity, and infact with the apparent approval of the biblical author. Theestablished custom of seeking sanctuary from threat of death in thenation’s shrine is reflected in 1 Kings 1:50–53;2:28–35, where Adonijah and Joab are described as “clingingto the horns of the altar.”

Solomon’stemple and rival worship centers.In the temple built by Solomon, the altar of incense that belonged tothe “inner sanctuary” was overlaid with gold (1 Kings6:20, 22). Solomon’s prayer at the dedication of the temple wasmade before the bronze altar in the courtyard (1 Kings 8:22,54). The altar for sacrifices was much larger than the one that hadbeen in the tabernacle (1 Chron. 4:1 gives its dimensions).

Althoughmany of the psalms may originally have been used in worship in thefirst temple, there are surprisingly few references to the altar inthe Psalter (only Pss. 26:6; 43:4; 51:19; 84:3; 118:27). They expressthe psalmist’s devotion to God and the temple as the placewhere God’s presence is enjoyed as the highest blessing.

Afterthe division of the kingdom, Jeroboam offered sacrifices at the rivalaltar that he set up in Bethel (1 Kings 12:32–33). Anunnamed “man of God” (= prophet) predicted Josiah’sdesecration of this altar, which lay many years in the future(1 Kings 13:1–5). Amos and Hosea, who prophesied in thenorthern kingdom of the eighth century BC, condemned this and theother altars in that kingdom (e.g., Amos 3:14; Hos. 8:11–13).Ahab set up an altar to Baal in Samaria (1 Kings 16:32), and thesuppression of Yahwism by Jezebel included the throwing down of theLord’s altars in Israel (19:10, 14). The competition on MountCarmel between Elijah and the prophets of Baal involved rival altars(1 Kings 18), and Elijah’s twelve-stone altar recalls thatof Exod. 24, for he was calling the nation back to the exclusivemonotheism preached by Moses (1 Kings 18:30–32).

Withregard to the southern kingdom, the spiritual declension in the timeof Ahaz manifested itself in this king making an altar modeled on theAssyrian prototype that he had seen on a visit to Damascus (2 Kings16:10–14). He shifted the Lord’s altar from in front ofthe temple, where it had previously stood. Godly Hezekiah’sreligious reform included the removal of the altars at the highplaces that up to that time had been centers of deviant worship(2 Kings 18:4, 22). The apostasy of King Manasseh showed itselfin his rebuilding the high places that Hezekiah his father haddestroyed and in erecting altars to Baal (2 Kings 21), thusrepeating the sin of Ahab (cf. 1 Kings 16:32). Josiah’sreform included the destruction of all altars outside Jerusalem(2 Kings 23) and the centralizing of worship in the Jerusalemtemple.

InEzekiel’s vision of the new temple of the future, thesacrificial altar is its centerpiece (Ezek. 43:13–17). Thealtar was to be a large structure, with three-stepped stages and ahorn on each corner, and it was to be fitted with steps on itseastern side for the use of the priests.

Thesecond temple.The Israelites’ return from Babylonian exile was with theexpress aim of rebuilding the temple. The first thing that thepriests did was to build “the altar on its foundation”(i.e., its original base; Ezra 3:2–3). The returnees placed thealtar on the precise spot that it had occupied before the Babyloniansdestroyed it along with the temple. They took such care because theywanted to ensure that God would accept their sacrifices and so grantthem protection. At the very end of the OT period, the prophetMalachi condemned the insincerity of Israel’s worship that wasmanifested in substandard sacrifices being offered on God’saltar (Mal. 1:7, 10; 2:13).

NewTestament

Inthe NT, the altar is mentioned in a number of Jesus’ sayings(e.g., Matt. 5:23–24; 23:18–20). In the theology of thebook of Hebrews, which teaches about the priesthood of Jesus Christ(in the order of Melchizedek), the role of the priest is defined asone who “serve[s] at the altar” (7:13), and Christ’saltar (and that of Christ’s followers) is the cross on which heoffered himself as a sacrifice for sin (13:10). Another argument ofHebrews is that since on the most important day in the Jewish ritualcalendar (the Day of Atonement), the flesh of the sacrifice was noteaten (see Lev. 16:27), the eating of Jewish ceremonial foods is notrequired, nor is it of any spiritual value. The altar in the heavenlysanctuary is mentioned a number of times in the book of Revelation(6:9; 8:3, 5; 9:13; 11:1; 14:18; 16:7). It is most likely the altarof incense and is related to the prayers of God’s persecutedpeople, which are answered by the judgments of God upon the people ofthe earth.

A cult object as well as a goddess attested throughout theLevant.

Inthe OT, Asherah refers primarily to a wooden cult object (see Deut.16:21). That these were objects and not trees is evident fromdescriptions of their (NIV: “Ashe­rah poles”) being“made” (1 Kings 14:15) and “set up”(14:23). The word appears in common cultic settings—uponhilltops and under leafy trees (1 Kings 14:23; 2 Kings17:10)—and even in Yahweh’s temple (2 Kings 23:6).They appear also with other cult objects, notably altars and “sacredstones” (Exod. 34:13), and idols and incense stands (2 Chron.34:4). Whether the Asherah poles were carved images is uncertain,though presumably they provided a stand-in for the goddess or deity.

TheIsraelites were instructed to destroy the Asherah poles upon enteringCanaan (Exod. 34:13; also Deut. 7:5; 12:3). Instead, they fashionedtheir own (1 Kings 14:15, 23), assimilating them into worship ofYahweh (2 Kings 23:6). Later efforts at removing the poles weresporadic and temporary (compare 2 Kings 18:4 with 21:3, 7).Despite the apparent pervasiveness of these cult objects,archaeologists have yet to retrieve one.

Ina handful of instances, “Asherah” denotes a deity. InJudg. 3:7 “the Asherahs” (here indicating “goddesses”)is grammatically parallel to “the Baals”; likewise“Asherah” corresponds to Baal and “the starryhosts,” designating a specific deity (2 Kings 23:4). In1 Kings 18:19 Elijah speaks of the “prophets of Asherah,”who presumably spoke in the goddess’s name.

TwiceAsherah is associated with her cult object: 1 Kings 15:13(= 2 Chron. 15:16) mentions “an abominable thing”made “for Ashe­rah,” which the NIV renders as “arepulsive image for the worship of Asherah”; 2 Kings 21:7mentions “the carved likeness of Asherah,” rendered as“the carved Asherah pole” (NIV). In 2 Kings 23:7 thenarrator refers to a place where women did “weaving forAsherah.” It is unclear what these weavings were, thoughpossibly they were cult garments or coverings for the cult image.

Outsidethe Bible, Asherah is attested in Mesopotamian, Hittite, andPhilistine texts. The most comprehensive portrait of the goddess,however, comes from the Ras Shamra tablets (Ugarit). Designated“Athirat,” she was consort to El and Mother of the gods(who are called “the seventy sons of Athirat”). She isfurther designated as “Lady Athirat of the Sea” (in theBaal myth Sea is Athirat’s son); alternate renderings include“the Lady who treads on the Sea,” and “Lady Athiratof the Day.” In the Kirta Epic, Athirat is portrayed as thepatron goddess of Tyre and Sidon (see Ashtaroth).

Inscriptionsdiscovered at Khirbet el-Qom and Kuntillet ‘Ajrud (associatedwith Iron Age Israel) mention Yahweh and “his Asherah.”Disagreement exists over whether the term here reflects a cultobject, a shrine, or the goddess. Also debated is whether thisrepresents a combination of Yahwistic belief or a form of Yahwismpredating monotheism.

Cloudsand theophany. Thestorm god Baal occupied a central place in Canaanite religion, and soa cloud, especially a rain cloud, was considered a prominentmanifestation of the divine presence. In Ugaritic texts Baal isdescribed as the “rider on the cloud.”

TheOT depicts the God of Israel in similar terms, as riding on a cloud(Judg. 5:4; Isa. 19:1; Pss. 18:11–12; 68:4; 104:3), and as thecreator and sender of clouds: “Ask rain from the Lord in theseason of the spring rain; from the Lord who makes the storm clouds,and he will give them showers of rain, to everyone the vegetation inthe field” (Zech. 10:1 ESV [see also 1 Kings 18:44; Pss.135:7; 147:8; Prov. 8:28; Isa. 5:6; Jer. 10:13]). Divine judgment ispictured as a dark storm (Isa. 30:30; Lam. 2:1; Nah. 1:3; Zech.1:15). In his taunt against the king of Babylon, Isaiah attributes tothe king the arrogant intention of ascending “above the tops ofthe clouds,” that is, to the dwelling place of God (Isa.14:14).

Atseveral crucial points God manifested his presence among theIsraelites in the form of a cloud: in the wilderness (the “pillarof cloud” of Exod. 13:21 and elsewhere), on Mount Sinai (Exod.19:9; 24:15), in the tabernacle (Exod. 40:34), in the temple atJerusalem (1 Kings 8:10), and frequently in the visions ofEzekiel (e.g., Ezek. 1:4; 10:3).

TheNT continues the imagery of the cloud as a manifestation of divinepresence in the story of the transfiguration (Matt. 17:5; Mark 9:7;Luke 9:36), and also in depictions of Jesus as a cloud-rider in Matt.26:64; Rev. 14:14 (see Dan. 7:13). Jesus was hidden by a cloud whenhe ascended (Acts 1:9), and believers will be caught up by clouds athis return (1 Thess. 4:17; Rev. 11:12).

Cloudsin nature. Ahandful of biblical texts describe clouds appearing in the land ofIsrael from the west, from the Mediterranean Sea (1 Kings 18:14;Luke 12:54).

Cloudsstand for the highest point in the sky (Job 35:5; Jer. 51:9). Theywere understood to release their rain when full (Eccles. 11:3).Clouds are associated with rainbows (Gen. 9:13; Rev. 10:1).

Rhythmic movement of the body, usually to music. In theBible, dancing usually has some form of religious significance. ForGod’s people in the OT, dancing was a joyous experienceassociated with celebration and worship. The various words used todescribe dancing are descriptive: leaping, skipping, twisting, andwhirling. Throughout Scripture, dancing is used as a symbol ofrejoicing and as an antithesis to mourning (Ps. 30:11; Eccles. 3:4;Lam. 5:15). The sacred dances of the Hebrews expressed praise (Pss.149:3; 150:4) and joy (Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6–7;21:11; 29:5; Ps. 30:11; Eccles. 3:4; Lam. 5:15). In ancient Jewishculture men and women danced in separate groups (Ps. 68:25; Jer.31:13). Dance performers usually were groups of women, with oneleading, on occasions of national celebration, such as after thecrossing of the Red Sea (Exod. 15:20), after military victories(1Sam. 18:6), and at religious festivals (Judg. 21:19–21).This may reveal the peculiarity of David’s conduct in dancingwith all his might as the ark of the Lord was brought to Jerusalem(2Sam. 6:14; 1Chron. 13:1–14; 15:1–29).Although dancing was reserved for occasions of religious worship andfestivity, God speaks of a time of the ultimate restoration of hispeople from despair, when he promises that all Israel will rejoice indancing (Jer. 31:4, 13).

Paganworship also included dancing. The prophets of Baal, in their attemptto implore their god to appear, performed a kind of limping dancearound Elijah’s altar on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:26).Elsewhere, Aaron and the Israelites danced before the golden calf atthe foot of Mount Sinai (Exod. 32:6, 18–19).

Dancingis also associated with pagan celebrations, as when Herodias’sdaughter danced before Herod Antipas and his dinner guests at Herod’sbirthday celebration. The result was the beheading of John theBaptist. In the manner of Greek entertainment, the dance of thisyoung daughter, who perhaps was only twelve to fourteen years old(Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), probably was a sensual art form, a type ofdance unheard of in Israel.

Danceis not limited to the pious, and it was found to be an integral partof everyday events of antiquity. Children danced (Job 21:11; Matt.11:16–17; Luke 7:32), as did the young women at the vineyards,some while playing their hand drums (Judg. 21:21; Jer. 31:4, 13). TheShulammite’s dance (Song 6:13) was as beautiful as two dancetroupes. Dancing is associated with family celebrations, as in thestory of the prodigal son. When the prodigal son returned home, hisexuberant father cried out, “For this son of mine was dead andis alive again; he was lost and is found,” and so “theybegan to celebrate.” The older brother heard music and dancing,which commemorated the homecoming of the prodigal son (Luke15:24–25).

Rhythmic movement of the body, usually to music. In theBible, dancing usually has some form of religious significance. ForGod’s people in the OT, dancing was a joyous experienceassociated with celebration and worship. The various words used todescribe dancing are descriptive: leaping, skipping, twisting, andwhirling. Throughout Scripture, dancing is used as a symbol ofrejoicing and as an antithesis to mourning (Ps. 30:11; Eccles. 3:4;Lam. 5:15). The sacred dances of the Hebrews expressed praise (Pss.149:3; 150:4) and joy (Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6–7;21:11; 29:5; Ps. 30:11; Eccles. 3:4; Lam. 5:15). In ancient Jewishculture men and women danced in separate groups (Ps. 68:25; Jer.31:13). Dance performers usually were groups of women, with oneleading, on occasions of national celebration, such as after thecrossing of the Red Sea (Exod. 15:20), after military victories(1Sam. 18:6), and at religious festivals (Judg. 21:19–21).This may reveal the peculiarity of David’s conduct in dancingwith all his might as the ark of the Lord was brought to Jerusalem(2Sam. 6:14; 1Chron. 13:1–14; 15:1–29).Although dancing was reserved for occasions of religious worship andfestivity, God speaks of a time of the ultimate restoration of hispeople from despair, when he promises that all Israel will rejoice indancing (Jer. 31:4, 13).

Paganworship also included dancing. The prophets of Baal, in their attemptto implore their god to appear, performed a kind of limping dancearound Elijah’s altar on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:26).Elsewhere, Aaron and the Israelites danced before the golden calf atthe foot of Mount Sinai (Exod. 32:6, 18–19).

Dancingis also associated with pagan celebrations, as when Herodias’sdaughter danced before Herod Antipas and his dinner guests at Herod’sbirthday celebration. The result was the beheading of John theBaptist. In the manner of Greek entertainment, the dance of thisyoung daughter, who perhaps was only twelve to fourteen years old(Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), probably was a sensual art form, a type ofdance unheard of in Israel.

Danceis not limited to the pious, and it was found to be an integral partof everyday events of antiquity. Children danced (Job 21:11; Matt.11:16–17; Luke 7:32), as did the young women at the vineyards,some while playing their hand drums (Judg. 21:21; Jer. 31:4, 13). TheShulammite’s dance (Song 6:13) was as beautiful as two dancetroupes. Dancing is associated with family celebrations, as in thestory of the prodigal son. When the prodigal son returned home, hisexuberant father cried out, “For this son of mine was dead andis alive again; he was lost and is found,” and so “theybegan to celebrate.” The older brother heard music and dancing,which commemorated the homecoming of the prodigal son (Luke15:24–25).

Rhythmic movement of the body, usually to music. In theBible, dancing usually has some form of religious significance. ForGod’s people in the OT, dancing was a joyous experienceassociated with celebration and worship. The various words used todescribe dancing are descriptive: leaping, skipping, twisting, andwhirling. Throughout Scripture, dancing is used as a symbol ofrejoicing and as an antithesis to mourning (Ps. 30:11; Eccles. 3:4;Lam. 5:15). The sacred dances of the Hebrews expressed praise (Pss.149:3; 150:4) and joy (Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6–7;21:11; 29:5; Ps. 30:11; Eccles. 3:4; Lam. 5:15). In ancient Jewishculture men and women danced in separate groups (Ps. 68:25; Jer.31:13). Dance performers usually were groups of women, with oneleading, on occasions of national celebration, such as after thecrossing of the Red Sea (Exod. 15:20), after military victories(1Sam. 18:6), and at religious festivals (Judg. 21:19–21).This may reveal the peculiarity of David’s conduct in dancingwith all his might as the ark of the Lord was brought to Jerusalem(2Sam. 6:14; 1Chron. 13:1–14; 15:1–29).Although dancing was reserved for occasions of religious worship andfestivity, God speaks of a time of the ultimate restoration of hispeople from despair, when he promises that all Israel will rejoice indancing (Jer. 31:4, 13).

Paganworship also included dancing. The prophets of Baal, in their attemptto implore their god to appear, performed a kind of limping dancearound Elijah’s altar on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:26).Elsewhere, Aaron and the Israelites danced before the golden calf atthe foot of Mount Sinai (Exod. 32:6, 18–19).

Dancingis also associated with pagan celebrations, as when Herodias’sdaughter danced before Herod Antipas and his dinner guests at Herod’sbirthday celebration. The result was the beheading of John theBaptist. In the manner of Greek entertainment, the dance of thisyoung daughter, who perhaps was only twelve to fourteen years old(Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), probably was a sensual art form, a type ofdance unheard of in Israel.

Danceis not limited to the pious, and it was found to be an integral partof everyday events of antiquity. Children danced (Job 21:11; Matt.11:16–17; Luke 7:32), as did the young women at the vineyards,some while playing their hand drums (Judg. 21:21; Jer. 31:4, 13). TheShulammite’s dance (Song 6:13) was as beautiful as two dancetroupes. Dancing is associated with family celebrations, as in thestory of the prodigal son. When the prodigal son returned home, hisexuberant father cried out, “For this son of mine was dead andis alive again; he was lost and is found,” and so “theybegan to celebrate.” The older brother heard music and dancing,which commemorated the homecoming of the prodigal son (Luke15:24–25).

(1)Atrue prophet raised up by God during the reign of Ahab of Israel(ninth century BC) in order to counter fast-rising idolatry fueled bythe king and his foreign-born wife, Jezebel.

Falseworship at this time focused on Baal, a major Canaanite deity who wasthe god of fertility, having power over dew, rain, lightning, andthunder. Thus, as people turned to Baal for these life-giving forces,God shut up the heavens so there would be no rain in Israel (1Kings17:1). God also at this time sent Elijah the Tishbite to confront theking.

Elijahlived in the wilderness, perhaps to escape the vengeance of the royalcouple and to avoid being tainted by the perversities of the state ofIsrael. He had a distinctive appearance: very hairy and dressed in aloincloth (2Kings 1:8).

Throughthe performance of miraculous acts, Elijah demonstrated that God waswith him. The first such act was multiplying the food supplies of awidow who provided him with food. Even more dramatically, he prayedfor the woman’s son when the child died, and the dead boy beganto breathe again (1Kings 17:17–24).

Elijah’smost dramatic moment came when he confronted Ahab and his many Baalprophets on Mount Carmel (1Kings 18). Yahweh fought Baal on thelatter’s terms. The object was whether Yahweh or Baal couldthrow fire from heaven to light the altar fire. Baal was purportedlya specialist at throwing fire (lightning), and his prophets wentfirst. However, because Baal did not really exist, they failed. WhenYahweh’s turn came, Elijah increased the stakes by pouringwater on the wood. Yahweh, the one true God, threw fire from heaven,which burned the sacrifice, wood, stones, and dirt, and even dried upthe water. Soon thereafter, God opened up the skies so that it rainedagain. Even so, Ahab and then his son Ahaziah (2Kings 1)continued to worship Baal.

Elijahcontinued to confront the wicked idolatry of these kings. God usedhim to pronounce judgment against Ahab and Jezebel, as well as thedynasty, after the royal pair unjustly had Naboth the Jezreeliteexecuted simply so they could possess his field (1Kings21).

Elijahwas a devoted servant of Yahweh. Before Elijah passed from this life,God introduced him to his successor, Elisha. When the end came, hedid not die but rather was caught up to heaven (2Kings2:1–18)—only the second person reported to leave thislife without dying (cf. Enoch in Gen. 5:21–24).

Towardthe end of the OT period, the prophet Malachi announced the comingday of the Lord (Mal. 4:5–6). As a precursor to that day, Godwould send the prophet Elijah as a forerunner. Some people thoughtthat Jesus was Elijah (Matt. 16:14; Mark 6:15; 8:28; Luke 9:8, 19),but Jesus is the one who ushers in the kingdom of God. John theBaptist was his forerunner, and so it was he who is rightlyassociated with Elijah (Matt. 11:13–14). Indeed, his wildernesslifestyle and ministry echoed those of Elijah. At the Mount ofTransfiguration, Elijah appeared to Jesus along with Moses; these twowilderness figures represented the prophets and the law (Matt.17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36).

(2)Adescendant of Benjamin and ancestor of Saul (1Chron. 8:27).(3)Adescendant of Harim, who married a foreign woman during the time ofEzra (Ezra 10:21). (4)Adescendant of Elam, who married a foreign woman during the time ofEzra (Ezra 10:26).

Human Uses and Metaphors

Fire is a basic necessity for various human activities such as cooking (Exod. 12:8; Isa. 44:15–16, 19; John 21:9), warming (Isa. 44:16; Jer. 36:22; John 18:18), lighting (Isa. 50:11), manufacturing (Exod. 32:24), and refining metals (Num. 31:22–23). Fire is also an important means of maintaining the purity of God’s people, used to punish sinners (the sexually immoral [Lev. 20:14; 21:9; cf. Gen. 38:24] and the disobedient [Josh. 7:25; cf. 2Kings 23:16]) and to destroy idols (Exod. 32:20; Deut. 7:5, 25; 2Kings 10:26), chariots (Josh. 11:6, 9), and the cities of Canaan (Josh. 6:24; 8:19; 11:11; Judg. 18:27). As an essential means of worship, fire is used to burn sacrificial animals (Gen. 8:20; Exod. 29:18; Lev. 1:9; 3:3; 9:10, 13–14, 20) and grain offerings (Lev. 2:2, 9; 9:17).

The Mosaic law has several regulations concerning fire. Regarded as work, starting a fire is forbidden on the Sabbath (Exod. 35:3). It is the responsibility of the priests to keep the fire burning on the altar (Lev. 6:9, 12–13). The use of an “unauthorized fire” for sacrifice is forbidden (note Nadab and Abihu’s death [Lev. 10:1–2; cf. Num. 3:4; 26:61; 1Chron. 24:2]). Also, contrary to the Canaanite religious custom, burning children is forbidden (Deut. 18:10), though the Israelites failed to keep this command and elicited God’s judgment (2Kings 16:3; 17:17; 21:6; Jer. 7:31; 32:35; note Josiah’s ban in 2Kings 23:10).

As a metaphor, fire also signifies human anger (Ps. 39:3), wickedness (Isa. 9:18), self-reliance (Isa. 50:11), evil planning (Hos. 7:6–7), lust (Prov. 6:27–28), evil speech or tongue (Prov. 16:27; James 3:5–6), and, paradoxically, kindness to an enemy (Prov. 25:22; Rom. 12:20).

Divine Uses and Metaphors

In the Bible, God is described as the ruler of fire (Ps. 104:4; cf. 1Kings 18). Positively, God sends fire to signify his acceptance of worship (Lev. 9:24; Judg. 13:19–20; 1Kings 18:38; 2Chron. 7:1–3; cf. Luke 9:54). God also purifies his people by fire in order to provide them with abundance (Ps. 66:12), to cleanse them of their sins (Isa. 6:6–7), to refine them into the true remnant (Zech. 13:9), to restore true worship (Mal. 3:2–3), to bring forth genuine faith (1Cor. 3:13, 15; 1Pet. 1:7), and to give Christians a true joy of participating in Christ’s suffering (1Pet. 4:12). God also promises to make his people like a firepot and a flaming torch that will burn the surrounding enemies (Zech. 12:6). Negatively, God uses fire to punish the wicked and disobedient (Gen. 19:24; Exod. 9:23; Num. 11:1; 16:35; 2Kings 1:10, 12; Isa. 29:6; 34:9–10; 66:24; Ezek. 38:22; 39:6; Rev. 20:9). God is a farmer burning unfruitful trees (John 15:2, 6; cf. Matt. 3:10; 7:19; 13:40) and “thorns and briers” (Isa. 10:17). The eternal fire of hell is the place where God’s final judgment will be executed (Matt. 5:22; 25:41; Mark 9:45–49; Jude 1:7; note the “lake of fire” in Rev. 20:14–15; cf. 14:10; 21:8).

Fire is also a symbol used to image the indescribable God. It symbolizes God’s presence: a smoking firepot with a flaming torch (Gen. 15:17), the burning bush (Exod. 3:2; cf. Elijah’s expectation [1Kings 19:12]), the pillars of fire and smoke (Exod. 13:21–22; Num. 14:14), the smoke on Mount Sinai and in the tabernacle and the temple (Exod. 19:19; Num. 9:15–16; Deut. 4:11–12; Isa. 6:4). Fire marks God’s protection: the “horses and chariots of fire” (2Kings 6:17; cf. 2:11), the “wall of fire” (Zech. 2:5). Fire also represents God’s glory: God’s throne (Dan. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 1:4, 13; 10:2, 6–7), God’s form (Ezek. 1:27), the seven spirits of God before the throne (Rev. 4:5). God in his holy wrath is also likened to a burning fire (Pss. 79:5; 89:46; Isa. 5:24; 33:14; Jer. 15:14; Ezek. 21:31; 22:21; Hos. 8:5; note the expression “consuming fire” [Deut. 4:24; Isa. 33:14; Heb. 12:29]) and even to a fiery monster (Ps. 18:8; Isa. 30:33; 65:5; cf. Job 41:19–21). Fire is an important element in the description of the day of the Lord (Joel 2:3; cf. 2Pet. 3:12). God’s words in the prophet’s mouth are likened to a fire (Jer. 5:14; 20:9; 23:29).

Fire is also used to speak of Jesus. John the Baptist refers to Jesus’ baptism as one with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. 3:11). Jesus identifies the purpose of his coming as casting fire on earth (Luke 12:49). The returning Jesus is portrayed as coming in “blazing fire” (2Thess. 1:7), and the eyes of the glorified Christ are likened to “blazing fire” (Rev. 1:14; 2:18; cf. “flaming torches” in Dan. 10:6). In Acts 2:3 the Holy Spirit is portrayed as the “tongues of fire.”

In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such asIsrael, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periodscould be hoped for each year, in February/March and inOctober/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a goodcrop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’spromise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4).Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of thispromise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would begiven to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:35–36).

Raincould also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives,where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the faceof the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rainaccompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).

Sincerain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbolof God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A strikingexample of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three yearsthe rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in Godwas vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. Theeffectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and laterfor rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James5:17–18).

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such asIsrael, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periodscould be hoped for each year, in February/March and inOctober/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a goodcrop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’spromise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4).Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of thispromise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would begiven to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:35–36).

Raincould also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives,where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the faceof the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rainaccompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).

Sincerain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbolof God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A strikingexample of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three yearsthe rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in Godwas vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. Theeffectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and laterfor rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James5:17–18).

Affliction is a condition of physical, mental, or spiritualdistress, or the cause of suffering. Afflictions may be a variety oftemporal, physical sufferings, such as infertility (Gen. 25:32;1 Sam. 1:11), injustice and toil (Gen. 31:42), slavery (Exod.1:12; 3:7, 17; 4:31; Deut. 26:6–7; Neh. 9:9), militaryoppression (Judg. 2:18; 10:18), loss (Ruth 1:21), displacement andmocking (2 Sam. 16:12), disease and disorders (Mark 3:10; 5:29,34; Luke 7:21; John 5:4; Acts 28:8), and famine (Acts 7:11).Affliction may be mental or spiritual, arising from the prospects oreffects of physical afflictions, feeling the futility of life(Eccles. 1:13), or concern for others in their afflictions (Isa.63:9; 2 Cor. 2:4).

Thereare several different causes and reasons for affliction, but there isno simple formula for determining the cause of one’safflictions, as Job reminds us. Clearly, Job is blameless (Job 1:1,8; 2:3), but his friends carry on wrongly in their assumptions thathis sins are to blame. The agents of affliction include God (2 Kings17:20; Nah. 1:12), Satan and/or demons (Job 1:12; Acts 5:16), otherpeople (Judg. 10:8; 2 Thess. 1:6), oneself (1 Kings 18:28),or the general condition of life (Job 5:7).

Thereasons for affliction also vary. One reason might be called “noreason,” in that “man is born to trouble as surely assparks fly upward” (Job 5:7). Troubles, afflictions, and sorrowjust happen. In retrospect, this is a condition of living in a cursedworld (Gen. 3). But this is a general consequence for the whole humanrace, not a punishment directed at a specific sin. The widespreadafflictions of the curse appear random. In various forms they preventus from turning to easy living as a refuge from broken relationshipsand therefore force us to look elsewhere. The intent is that we lookto God (see Hos. 5:15). Multiple specific reasons, however, may liebehind any particular affliction. They include punishment for sin(Deut. 29:22), often to induce repentance leading to restoration(Hos. 5:15; Zech. 10:9; 1 Cor. 11:30). Affliction may be dealtout by people as they sin against others (1 Sam. 1:7; 2 Sam.16:12; 2 Thess. 1:6). One’s own choices may have naturalconsequences (Prov. 11:24; 13:20; 19:9, 15; 22:3), or consequencescome due to a lack of leadership (Zech. 10:2). Some result from beingassociated with those going through afflictions (Num. 14:28–35;1 Kings 2:26), suffering afflictions due to following Christ(Matt. 13:21; John 15:18–20; Acts 20:23), or feeling empathyfor the afflicted (2 Cor. 2:4). Other afflictions are given astraining, prevention, or refining (Isa. 48:10; Rom. 5:3–5;2 Cor. 12:7; Heb. 12:5–13). Suffering affliction may alsobe substitutionary, on behalf of others (Isa. 53:4–7; and thesubstitutionary atonement of Christ generally).

Inresponse to others’ afflictions, we are called to sympathy,compassion, comfort, and justice. Appropriate responses to our ownafflictions range from patient endurance for the cause of Christ(James 5:11) to lamenting (the psalms and Christ’s example,Matt. 27:46).

Agriculture is the practice of producing food throughcultivation and harvesting. For the biblical Israelites and theirancestors, it was one of the primary expressions of subsistence intheir economy and life. The priority of agricultural pursuits forIsrael’s worldview is indicated in the fact that it was amongthe first mandates given by God to man in the garden (Gen. 1:28–29).This primacy of place in agricultural concerns meant that care andstewardship of the land was the prerogative of every member ofsociety. In fact, individuals, the priesthood, and the monarchy couldall possess and care for the land (Num. 27:1–8; 35:1–8;1 Chron. 27:26–28).

Theprimary produce of the biblical farmer included cereals (wheat,barley, millet), legumes (beans, peas), olives, and grapes.Additional, less predominant crops included nuts (almonds, walnuts,pistachios), herbs (cumin, coriander, sesame), and vegetables(cucumbers, onions, greens). The production of the various crops waslargely limited to certain geographic regions of Israel (such as thecoastal plain or the plains of Moab) because much of the land was illsuited for agriculture, being rocky and arid.

Theentire calendar in most ancient Near Eastern societies centered onthe agricultural cycle, and many important biblical feasts includedsome connection with the seasonal calendar. For Israel, some of thefirst festivals were linked to the agricultural seasons (Exod.23:14–16; Lev. 23). Cereals were sown at the Feast ofBooths/Tabernacles (late October) and harvested in middle to latespring at the Feasts of Passover (March) and Weeks/Pentecost (May).Grapes and other fruit were harvested in late summer into the fall.

Theactual craft of agriculture involved the three steps of sowing,reaping, and threshing/production. The fields typically were plowedfollowing the first autumn rains, and sowing lasted about two months.Harvest season lasted seven months in all. Cereal products wentthrough the process of threshing, whereas fruits were immediatelyproduced into wine or dried. The practice of threshing the grainsmostly took place on threshing floors located adjacent to the fields.The threshing floors were designed as a circle, generally 25 to 40feet in diameter. Typically animals such as donkeys or oxen weredriven around the floor as the grains were fed into their paths andsubsequently crushed. The resulting broken husks were then throwninto the air, allowing the wind to carry away the chaff and producinga separated grain that could then be cleaned and processed for homeuse.

Besidesplaying a significant role in the practical matters of life,agricultural practices found numerous applications in the images andideals of the biblical writers (Judg. 8:2; 9:8–15; Ezek.17:6–10). The medium could be used to express both blessingsand curses. Several texts point to the cursing of agriculturalendeavors as a punishment from God. Ceremonial defilement was apossibility if proper methodology in sowing seeds was not followed(Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:9). Similarly, Yahweh’s assessment ofIsrael’s failure to uphold the covenant commitments could leadto disease, locust attacks, crop failure, and total loss of the land(Deut. 28:40; Joel 1:4; Amos 7:1). Conversely, agricultural bountyand blessings were also a part of covenant stipulations. Indeed, manyof the offerings themselves were centered on agriculture (Lev. 2;Num. 18:8–32). Even the Sabbath rest itself was extended tomatters of agriculture and care for the land (Lev. 25:1–7).Finally, the covenant saw some of the greatest benefits of lifebefore Yahweh as being blessed through agricultural bounty (Deut.28:22; Amos 9:13). In a few cases, agricultural imagery cut bothways. For instance, the vine was an image that could expressjudgment, care, and restoration in both Judaism and Christianity(Isa. 5:1–8; John 15:1–11). Despite the link betweenagricultural realities and the covenant, the Scriptures are verycareful to distinguish Israel from the fertility cults of itsCanaanite neighbors (1 Kings 18:17–40; Hos. 2:8–9).This distinction also seems to have found expression in certain NTtexts (1 Cor. 6:15–20).

The Bible depicts war and warlike acts throughout. The armsare both offensive and defensive in nature. The most common types ofoffensive weapons are swords, axes, spears, bows and arrows, slings,and stones. Defensive weapons include the shield and the helmet. Anarmy’s arsenal was usually kept in a storehouse called anarmory (1 Kings 10:17; Isa. 22:8; Neh. 3:19).

Arms

Sword.In the OT, the word “sword” (khereb) appears for thefirst time in Gen. 3:24 after Adam and Eve have been evicted from thegarden of Eden. A flaming sword was placed there “to guard theway to the tree of life.” Thus, the first use of the sword isdefensive. Later in Genesis, Jacob’s sons use swords to avengethe rape of their sister Dinah (Gen. 34:25–26). In most casesthe word describes the weapon of choice for most of antiquity. Swordswere manufactured of iron (1 Sam. 13:19; Joel 3:10). Some wereshort and easy to maneuver (Judg. 3:16), while others were long andheavy (1 Sam. 21:9). They could be single- or double-edged, andthey were worn in a sheath or scabbard (1 Sam. 17:51; 2 Sam.20:8). The sword was also supported by a girdle made of leatherstudded with nails (1 Sam. 18:4; 2 Sam. 20:8). Sometimes,the sword was used figuratively to speak of God’s judgment(Lev. 26:6; Isa. 1:20; Jer. 47:6; 50:35–37; Ezek. 21:9, 28;Hos. 11:6). In the NT, the most common word describing a sword is theGreek machaira, which is used to describe the weapons wielded by themob that came to arrest Jesus (Matt. 26:47, 55; Mark 14:48), as wellas the weapon used by Peter to cut off Malchus’s ear (John18:10). Another Greek word translated “sword” isrhomphaia, which describes a longer sword, generally worn over one’sshoulder (Rev. 1:16; 6:8; 19:21). The word “sword” isalso used figuratively in the NT. The word of God is designated as“the sword of the Spirit” (Eph. 6:17) and as a“double-edged sword” (Heb. 4:12).

Spear.Four main words in the Bible are translated as “spear” or“javelin.” The Hebrew word romakh is translated “spear”or “javelin,” and it appears fifteen times in the OT. Thespear was made of iron (Joel 3:10), and those who fell prey to itnever survived its penetration (Num. 25:7; 1 Kings 18:28). Theother Hebrew word used for the spear is khanit, which appears aboutfifty times in the OT. It is used to describe Goliath’s spearwhen he fought David (1 Sam. 17:7), Saul’s spear when hehurled it at David (1 Sam. 18:10–11), and theAssyrian-made “glittering” spear (Nah. 3:3). The thirdword is khidon, which appears about ten times in the OT. It describesa weapon in the arsenals of Joshua (Josh. 8:18, 26), Goliath (1 Sam.17:6), and the Babylonians (Jer. 6:23). In the NT, the word “spear”(Gk. longchē) occurs only once, referring to the weapon used topierce Jesus’ side at his crucifixion (John 19:34).

Bowand arrow.The bow and arrow was an important offensive weapon in Israel and thesurrounding cultures. In the Bible, bow and arrow, either incombination or individually, appear in both a literal (2 Kings9:24; Isa. 37:33) and a figurative sense (Pss. 11:2; 64:7; Isa. 49:2;Lam. 3:12; Zech. 9:13). There is extrabiblical evidence suggestingthat the Egyptians and the Syrians also used the bow and arrow aspart of their military arsenal.

Sling.Primitive but effective, the sling was used not only in Israel butalso in Egypt and Babylon. Easy to manufacture, it used stones asammunition; thus it was the weapon of choice for those lacking rawmaterial to build weapons made of metal. Besides David’s use ofthe sling in his encounter with Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40), men fromthe tribe of Benjamin used the sling with remarkable accuracy (Judg.20:16).

Ax.Besides its primary role for cutting down trees (Deut. 19:5; Judg.9:48; Jer. 10:3), the ax probably was used in war as well. (See alsoAx, Ax Head.)

Armor

Shield.The shield is one of the most ancient defense weapons. Two Hebrewwords are used to depict a shield. The magen appears for the firsttime in Gen. 15:1, where it is used figuratively to speak of God’sprotection of Abraham. It is used in the same manner one other time,in Deut. 33:29. It is frequently used as a figure of speech by thepsalmists to denote the same idea of divine protection (Pss. 3:3;7:10; 18:2, 30; 28:7; 33:20; 59:11; 84:9, 11; 115:9–11;119:114; 144:2). When used literally, the term refers to a shieldmade of wood and sometimes overlaid with leather. Solomon used goldto manufacture shields (1 Kings 10:17), while Rehoboammanufactured them of bronze (1 Kings 14:27). This type of shieldwas used as a defensive weapon by the Israelites throughout theirhistory (Judg. 5:8; 1 Chron. 5:18; 2 Chron. 9:16; 14:8;17:17; 23:9; Neh. 4:16). It was also used by the Syrians (Isa. 22:6),Assyrians (Isa. 37:33), Egyptians (Jer. 46:3), and Persians (Ezek.27:10). The other Hebrew term translated “shield” istsinnah. This was larger than the magen and was meant to cover thefighter’s entire body. It was the type of shield carried byGoliath’s shield bearer (1 Sam. 17:7, 41), manufactured byKing Solomon (1 Kings 10:16), used by the Gadites who joinedDavid while fleeing from Saul (1 Chron. 12:8), and used byIsrael’s army during the reigns of Rehoboam (2 Chron.11:12) and Asa (2 Chron. 14:8). The Greek word thyreos is theLXX rendering of the Hebrew tsinnah, and it appears only once in theNT. Paul uses the word figuratively when speaking about the “shieldof faith” (Eph. 6:16).

Helmet.The helmet had the obvious defensive purpose of protecting acombatant’s head. It was made of leather or light metal, suchas bronze (1 Sam. 17:5, 38). In both Testaments, salvation isspoken of figuratively as a “helmet” (Isa. 59:17; Eph.6:17; 1 Thess. 5:8).

Coatof mail.Body armor was used for the protection of the warrior not only inIsrael but also in other ancient Near Eastern nations. The Hebrewterm shiryon is variously translated as “coat of mail”(ESV, RSV, NRSV), “coat of scale armor” (NIV), or“habergeon” (KJV). Goliath wore this type of body armor(1 Sam. 17:5, 38), and his was manufactured of bronze. Despitewearing a shiryon, Israel’s king Ahab was fatally wounded inbattle (1 Kings 22:34). In an attempt to strengthen Judah’smilitary power, King Uzziah also provided coats of mail for his army(2 Chron. 26:14). It was also used during postexilic times,Nehemiah’s workers having benefited from its protection (Neh.4:16). Shiryon (Gk. thorax) is used figuratively to speak of a“breastplate” of righteousness and of love (Isa. 59:17;Eph. 6:14; 1 Thess. 5:8).

The Bible depicts war and warlike acts throughout. The armsare both offensive and defensive in nature. The most common types ofoffensive weapons are swords, axes, spears, bows and arrows, slings,and stones. Defensive weapons include the shield and the helmet. Anarmy’s arsenal was usually kept in a storehouse called anarmory (1 Kings 10:17; Isa. 22:8; Neh. 3:19).

Arms

Sword.In the OT, the word “sword” (khereb) appears for thefirst time in Gen. 3:24 after Adam and Eve have been evicted from thegarden of Eden. A flaming sword was placed there “to guard theway to the tree of life.” Thus, the first use of the sword isdefensive. Later in Genesis, Jacob’s sons use swords to avengethe rape of their sister Dinah (Gen. 34:25–26). In most casesthe word describes the weapon of choice for most of antiquity. Swordswere manufactured of iron (1 Sam. 13:19; Joel 3:10). Some wereshort and easy to maneuver (Judg. 3:16), while others were long andheavy (1 Sam. 21:9). They could be single- or double-edged, andthey were worn in a sheath or scabbard (1 Sam. 17:51; 2 Sam.20:8). The sword was also supported by a girdle made of leatherstudded with nails (1 Sam. 18:4; 2 Sam. 20:8). Sometimes,the sword was used figuratively to speak of God’s judgment(Lev. 26:6; Isa. 1:20; Jer. 47:6; 50:35–37; Ezek. 21:9, 28;Hos. 11:6). In the NT, the most common word describing a sword is theGreek machaira, which is used to describe the weapons wielded by themob that came to arrest Jesus (Matt. 26:47, 55; Mark 14:48), as wellas the weapon used by Peter to cut off Malchus’s ear (John18:10). Another Greek word translated “sword” isrhomphaia, which describes a longer sword, generally worn over one’sshoulder (Rev. 1:16; 6:8; 19:21). The word “sword” isalso used figuratively in the NT. The word of God is designated as“the sword of the Spirit” (Eph. 6:17) and as a“double-edged sword” (Heb. 4:12).

Spear.Four main words in the Bible are translated as “spear” or“javelin.” The Hebrew word romakh is translated “spear”or “javelin,” and it appears fifteen times in the OT. Thespear was made of iron (Joel 3:10), and those who fell prey to itnever survived its penetration (Num. 25:7; 1 Kings 18:28). Theother Hebrew word used for the spear is khanit, which appears aboutfifty times in the OT. It is used to describe Goliath’s spearwhen he fought David (1 Sam. 17:7), Saul’s spear when hehurled it at David (1 Sam. 18:10–11), and theAssyrian-made “glittering” spear (Nah. 3:3). The thirdword is khidon, which appears about ten times in the OT. It describesa weapon in the arsenals of Joshua (Josh. 8:18, 26), Goliath (1 Sam.17:6), and the Babylonians (Jer. 6:23). In the NT, the word “spear”(Gk. longchē) occurs only once, referring to the weapon used topierce Jesus’ side at his crucifixion (John 19:34).

Bowand arrow.The bow and arrow was an important offensive weapon in Israel and thesurrounding cultures. In the Bible, bow and arrow, either incombination or individually, appear in both a literal (2 Kings9:24; Isa. 37:33) and a figurative sense (Pss. 11:2; 64:7; Isa. 49:2;Lam. 3:12; Zech. 9:13). There is extrabiblical evidence suggestingthat the Egyptians and the Syrians also used the bow and arrow aspart of their military arsenal.

Sling.Primitive but effective, the sling was used not only in Israel butalso in Egypt and Babylon. Easy to manufacture, it used stones asammunition; thus it was the weapon of choice for those lacking rawmaterial to build weapons made of metal. Besides David’s use ofthe sling in his encounter with Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40), men fromthe tribe of Benjamin used the sling with remarkable accuracy (Judg.20:16).

Ax.Besides its primary role for cutting down trees (Deut. 19:5; Judg.9:48; Jer. 10:3), the ax probably was used in war as well. (See alsoAx, Ax Head.)

Armor

Shield.The shield is one of the most ancient defense weapons. Two Hebrewwords are used to depict a shield. The magen appears for the firsttime in Gen. 15:1, where it is used figuratively to speak of God’sprotection of Abraham. It is used in the same manner one other time,in Deut. 33:29. It is frequently used as a figure of speech by thepsalmists to denote the same idea of divine protection (Pss. 3:3;7:10; 18:2, 30; 28:7; 33:20; 59:11; 84:9, 11; 115:9–11;119:114; 144:2). When used literally, the term refers to a shieldmade of wood and sometimes overlaid with leather. Solomon used goldto manufacture shields (1 Kings 10:17), while Rehoboammanufactured them of bronze (1 Kings 14:27). This type of shieldwas used as a defensive weapon by the Israelites throughout theirhistory (Judg. 5:8; 1 Chron. 5:18; 2 Chron. 9:16; 14:8;17:17; 23:9; Neh. 4:16). It was also used by the Syrians (Isa. 22:6),Assyrians (Isa. 37:33), Egyptians (Jer. 46:3), and Persians (Ezek.27:10). The other Hebrew term translated “shield” istsinnah. This was larger than the magen and was meant to cover thefighter’s entire body. It was the type of shield carried byGoliath’s shield bearer (1 Sam. 17:7, 41), manufactured byKing Solomon (1 Kings 10:16), used by the Gadites who joinedDavid while fleeing from Saul (1 Chron. 12:8), and used byIsrael’s army during the reigns of Rehoboam (2 Chron.11:12) and Asa (2 Chron. 14:8). The Greek word thyreos is theLXX rendering of the Hebrew tsinnah, and it appears only once in theNT. Paul uses the word figuratively when speaking about the “shieldof faith” (Eph. 6:16).

Helmet.The helmet had the obvious defensive purpose of protecting acombatant’s head. It was made of leather or light metal, suchas bronze (1 Sam. 17:5, 38). In both Testaments, salvation isspoken of figuratively as a “helmet” (Isa. 59:17; Eph.6:17; 1 Thess. 5:8).

Coatof mail.Body armor was used for the protection of the warrior not only inIsrael but also in other ancient Near Eastern nations. The Hebrewterm shiryon is variously translated as “coat of mail”(ESV, RSV, NRSV), “coat of scale armor” (NIV), or“habergeon” (KJV). Goliath wore this type of body armor(1 Sam. 17:5, 38), and his was manufactured of bronze. Despitewearing a shiryon, Israel’s king Ahab was fatally wounded inbattle (1 Kings 22:34). In an attempt to strengthen Judah’smilitary power, King Uzziah also provided coats of mail for his army(2 Chron. 26:14). It was also used during postexilic times,Nehemiah’s workers having benefited from its protection (Neh.4:16). Shiryon (Gk. thorax) is used figuratively to speak of a“breastplate” of righteousness and of love (Isa. 59:17;Eph. 6:14; 1 Thess. 5:8).

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

A region generally identified with the landmass betweenancient Syria and Egypt, including parts of the Sinai Peninsula,Palestine from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean, and southernPhoenicia (modern Lebanon). Although there is some discussion aboutthe origin of the name “Canaan” and its meaning, the nameapparently arises from the primary inhabitants of the region prior toJoshua’s incursion into the land, since it is primarily used inconnection with the phrase “the land of,” indicating thatthe descendants of Canaan possess it. Because the identity of theland of Canaan was linked as much to its inhabitants as it was to anysort of fixed borders, the boundaries are identified in various waysthroughout the biblical text. Such descriptions vary from a ratherlimited area of influence (as suggested by Num. 13:29) to a largerland spanning an area from the Euphrates to the Nile (Gen. 15:18;Exod. 23:23). Because of its strategic position as a buffer betweenEgypt and Mesopotamia and between Arabia and the sea, it served as aprimary trading outpost and the location of numerous importanthistorical events both prior to and after Israel’s appearancein the land.

Inthe Bible, the geographical reference “the land of Canaan”finds primary expression, not surprisingly, in Genesis throughJudges. The promise to Abraham that his descendants would inherit theland of the Canaanites (Gen. 15:18–21) is the theological focalpoint of the uses of the term “Canaan” throughout thesebiblical books. Once that inheritance was achieved and Israel becamea viable state, the term’s use seems to serve the doublepurpose of being both a geographical marker and a reminder of thenature of its former predominant inhabitants. The prophets drew uponthe term to remind Israel of the land’s former status, both inits positive (Isa. 19:18) and negative (Isa. 23:11; Zeph. 2:5)connotations. The term is transliterated twice in the NT in therecounting of OT history (Acts 7:11; 13:19). One further connectionbetween Canaan and the perspectives communicated concerning it in theOT is the apparent association of the land with corrupt tradepractices. That is, while some believe that the word “Canaan”always meant “merchant” or some similar word, its use inScripture suggests that the tradesmen of Canaan were of suchdisrepute in the recollection of ancient Israel that the term becamea synonym for “unjust trader” (Job 41:6; Ezek. 16:29;17:4; Zeph. 1:11; Zech. 14:21).

History

Theproximity of Canaan to Egypt meant that from its earliest periods itfound itself beholden to the pharaohs of Egypt. The EgyptianExecration texts from the Old Kingdom era tell of Egypt’sinfluence over Canaan in the early second millennium. After theexpulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, the pharaohs of the New Kingdomasserted their control over the land. Most famous among these recordsis Thutmose III’s account of his defeat of Megiddo throughthe implementation of both cunning and skill. This same pharaoh wouldestablish a system of dividing Canaan and its inhabitants fortaxation and administration that would be so successful that Solomonwould reimplement the same system during his reign (1 Kings4:7–19). Even in the weaker days of Egypt following the NewKingdom, pharaohs such as Necho and Shishak and their successors thePtolemies would often seek to revisit the days of glory in campaignsinto Canaan.

Inaddition to Egypt, other outside forces found their way into Canaanand exerted influence on its development. The earliest settlers seemto have come from Mesopotamia, and Semitic influence is witnessed asearly as 3000 BC. In the period between Egypt’s control ofCanaan during the Old Kingdom and its later reassertion afterexpelling the Hyksos, Canaan witnessed a massive influx of Amoritesfrom the north and also incursions by the Hittites and the Hurrians.As Egypt’s power waned toward the end of the New Kingdom, thePhilistines came in from the sea and the Israelites from across theJordan. All these societies were absorbed into the Canaanite cultureor were themselves modified by the Canaanites. Israelite success inremoving mention of the Canaanites as an identifiable entity wouldnot be firmly established until late in the eighth century underHezekiah.

Thestory of Israel’s predominance in the area of Canaan begins, ofcourse, with the infiltration into the land under Joshua and persistsuntil the fall of the temple in AD 70 at the hands of the Romans.During that period, Canaan endured as a place of importance as astaging ground for controlling both Mesopotamia and Egypt andtherefore witnessed campaigns by most of the great leaders ofAssyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Of course, with eachcampaign came alterations in both the political and the culturallandscape of the land and reinforcement of the view that the area wasthe center of the world. Indeed, it is in Canaan, in the JezreelValley, that Scripture turns its focus for the final battle betweenGod and the forces of Satan at Armageddon.

Geographyand Climate

Geography.Though small in scope, the region of Canaan encompassed asurprisingly wide variety of environments. Within its topography onecould find perilous deserts, snow-capped mountains, thick forests,lush plains, coastal beaches, rugged hills, deep valleys, andseparate water sources full of both life and minerals. The Shephelah,or coastal plain, lacks any natural harbor areas that would have ledto the early exploitation of the Mediterranean in the south that isso well known in the northern areas of Phoenicia. It does, however,provide wide-open, fertile areas fed by the rain runoff from thecentral hill country, which allowed it to be a useful source offarming and civilization from a very early period.

Thecentral hill country is essentially a ridge that runs parallel to thecoast and undulates in elevation from the mountainous north to therugged but less elevated regions of the south. This ridge served as anatural barrier against travel from west to east, so it is notsurprising that important military towns such as Hazor cropped up inplaces where valleys in this ridge allowed travelers to move from thecoast to the inland regions as necessary to reach Mesopotamia fromEgypt. One such valley of significance through the history of theland of Canaan is the Esdraelon or Jezreel Valley. It provides a wideswath of land that moves from Akko in the west (  justnorth of the Carmel Range) to the Sea of Galilee in the east, withaccess points in the north and south. Within this valley weresettlements such as Megiddo and Hazor in earlier times, and Nazarethand Tiberias in later times.

Alongthe eastern edge of the central hill country is the Jordan RiftValley. The elevation drops dramatically from cities in the hillcountry, such as Jerusalem at about 2,500 feet above sea level, tocities in the valley, such as Jericho at about 1,000 feet below sealevel, within the span of about fifteen miles. The valley itself ispart of a much larger rift that starts in southeast Turkey andcontinues all the way to Mozambique in Africa. Waters from snowyMount Hermon and a couple of natural springs feed into the Sea ofGalilee and then flow into the Jordan River, which snakes its waydown into the Dead Sea. The lands around the Jordan River were oncevery fertile in the north and probably included abundant forests andwildlife. Toward the south of the Jordan River, one approaches thewilderness surrounding the Dead Sea, a region well known for itsmineral contents.

Thesouthernmost section of Canaan, known as the Negev, is an unforgivingregion with mountains, deserts, and interspersed oases throughout. Itopens up into the Arabian Desert to the east and the Sinai Peninsulato the southwest. Its primary cities of importance in biblical timeswere Beersheba and Raphia. As the gateway from Egypt to Canaan, theNegev played a significant role in biblical history.

Climate.The climate of Canaan played a significant role in its religion andhistory. It is generally recognized that climate change played arather momentous role in population movements by nomads, indestabilization of powerful governments, and in the capability, orlack thereof, of nations to participate in the trade that was at theheart of Canaan’s growth, spread of influence, and success.Within Canaan itself, because the natural water sources were on thewrong side of the central hill country, most of its water came fromrainfall. It is not surprising, therefore, that many of thediscussions that take place in both Canaanite and Israelite religiousexpressions concerning the power of their gods found utterance interms of a god’s ability to grant rain (see 1 Kings17–18). The rainy season began in October and typicallycontinued through April. The other months of the year witnessedlittle or no rainfall. Although in a temperate zone within which onemight expect high temperatures, the coastal plains were keptrelatively cool by winds coming in off the sea. The coastal mountainareas, such as Carmel, were the most likely to receive rainfall, sowhen they were without it, all the land suffered (Amos 1:2).

Cultureand Politics

Thehistory of Canaan begins with an archaeological record that travelsback into the first signs of human settlement anywhere in the world.Such early attestation exists within the confines of Palestine itselfat Jericho and Megiddo, both sites of natural springs that would haveattracted settlers. The pre-Israelite civilizations of Canaan arewell attested during the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BC). Theirculture as represented in the art and architecture of the landdemonstrates a developed people who were metropolitan in taste andgifted in style. Furthermore, because of the placement of the landbetween Egypt and Mesopotamia and the numerous incursions by outsideforces throughout its history, Canaan reveals a people with a hightolerance for change and a willingness to absorb other viewpointsinto their perspectives and practice. Archaeological finds reveal amixture of Egyptian, Sumerian, Amorite, Hittite, and Akkadianinfluences in their literature, material wealth, and religion.

Thoughunified in terms of a worldview and religious expression, the peopleof Canaan were politically committed to independent expressions oftheir power and influence. The greater cities seem to have served ashubs around which smaller communities and cities organized andremained separate from each other. The Amarna letters of thefourteenth century BC reveal leaders who did not trust each other andwho sought the Egyptian pharaoh’s favor as they vied forposition and strength. As one would expect, different city-statesheld more sway in different eras. Ebla flourished in the period of2500–2000 BC and then again around 1800 BC. Likewise, Byblosflourished in the period of 2500–1300 BC. It is in the MiddleBronze Age (2200–1550 BC) that cities more directly involvedwith the biblical narrative started to flourish. For instance,Jerusalem, Jericho, Hazor, and Megiddo reached their height of powerand influence around 1700–1500 BC, and each of these ismentioned in various texts of the time that give us some insight intoCanaan’s role in the greater political history. It isUgarit/Ras Shamra, which flourished in 1400–1200 BC, however,that has granted us the greatest amount of textual knowledge andinformation about the religion and literature of Canaan.

Religion

Theexcavations of Ras Shamra (beginning in 1929), and the accompanyingdiscovery of its archive of clay tablets, granted modern scholars aperspective into Canaanite religion that had been hinted at in thebiblical text but previously had remained somewhat of a mystery. Thetablets themselves date between 1400 and 1200 BC. They reveal ahighly developed religion with identifiable, well-defined deities.These deities represent religious practice and thought in the regionthat go back to at least 2000 BC, and the Mesopotamian religions theyare dependent on go back well beyond that.

Canaanitedeities.Theprimary gods identified in the text include El, Baal, Asherah (atUgarit, Athirat), Anath (at Ugarit, Anat), and Ashtoreth (at Ugarit,Astarte). El was the supreme Canaanite deity, though in popular usethe people of Canaan seem to have been more interested in Baal.

Therelationship between the Canaanite use of the name “El”for their supreme god and Israel’s use of the same in referenceto its own God (Gen. 33:20; Job 8:3; Pss. 18:31, 33, 48; 68:21) issomething that biblical authors used at various points in theirwritings (Ps. 81:9–10; Nah. 1:2), never in the sense ofassociating the two as one and the same, but solely for the purposeof distinguishing their God, Yahweh, from any associations with thedescriptions and nature of the Canaanite El (Exod. 34:14).Practically speaking, the coincidence probably resulted from the factthat the Hebrew word ’el had a dual intent in its common usage,similar to the way a modern English speaker will sometimes use “god”as either a common or a proper noun.

Like“El,” the term “Baal” had a dual function inits use. Because the word means “master” or “lord,”the people of Canaan could apply “Baal” to either thesingular deity of the greater pantheon or to individual gods of amore local variety. Local manifestations included Baal-Peor,Baal-Hermon, Baal-Zebul, and Baal-Meon. The OT acknowledges themultiplicity of Baals in some places (Judg. 2:11; 3:7; 1 Sam.7:4) but also seems to allude to a singular ultimate Baal (1 Kings18; 2 Kings 21:3), called “Baal-Shamen” or“Baal-Hadad” elsewhere. The fact that Baal was recognizedin the Ugaritic texts as the god of the thunderbolt adds aninteresting insight to the struggle on Mount Carmel, in which onewould suppose that had he been real, the one thing he should havebeen able to do was bring fire down from the sky; but he could not(1 Kings 18). Recognition that the term “Baal” couldrefer to a number of gods or to one ultimate god may also help oneunderstand the syncretism that took place in Israel between Yahwehand Baal addressed by the prophet Hosea (Hos. 2:16). To the commonperson who recognized the multiplicity of the term “Baal”and yet also heard of his supremacy, the assignment of the name toYahweh and the resulting combining that would occur would seem anatural progression, though still sinful in the eyes of God.

Thesynthesis of Baal and Yahweh is demonstrated in Scripture as being atemptation from national Israel’s earliest encounters withBaalism. The events at Peor (Num. 25) demonstrate a propensity towardthis type of activity, but the confusion between Yahweh and Baalbecame strongest once Israel entered into the land. Gideon had asecond name, “Jerub-Baal” (Judg. 6:32), and the peoplethemselves worshiped Baal-Berith (“Baal of the covenant”)as an indication that they believed their covenant to be with Baal,not Yahweh. Saul, Jonathan, and David all had sons named for Baal:Esh-Baal, Merib-Baal, and Beeliada respectively. Jeroboam I madethe connection even more explicit in his setting of shrines at Danand Bethel with the golden calves that were common icons for Baal inthe era, but that he apparently viewed as being appropriaterepresentations of Yahweh. By the time of the prophets, suchconfusion evidently was entrenched into the very heart of both Israeland Judah; however, Yahweh was able to utilize the false assessmentsof his character to clarify his true character and ultimately bringIsrael back to him.

Asherahwas the wife of El in Ugaritic mythology, but apparently because ofBaal’s accessibility and ubiquitous nature, she was ultimatelygiven to Baal as a consort among Canaanites in the south. Apparently,her worship was also linked to trees, and the mentioning of “Asherahpoles” (Exod. 34:13; Deut. 7:5; Judg. 6:25) in Scripturesuggests that such a linkage had been stylized into representativetrees at sacred locations. Asherah had prophets (1 Kings 18:19)and specific instruments of worship in Israel (2 Kings 23:4) andbecame so ensconced in practice and thought that her form often wasreplicated in the form of items known as Asherim. The previouslymentioned synthesis between Baal and Yahweh seems also to have foundexpression regarding Asherah within Israel. At Kuntillet Ajrud afamous graffito reads “Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah.”This example of the people granting a consort to Yahweh is yetanother instance where the biblical revelation is so distinct amongsurrounding cultures because of the absence of such imagery regardingGod.

Anathwas understood as both Baal’s sister and his lover in Canaanitemythology. Given her apparent replacement in the thought of thesouthern Canaanite tribes by Asherah, it is not surprising that theonly place we find Anath mentioned is in appellations, such as “BethAnath” (lit., “the house of Anath” [Josh. 19:38;Judg. 1:33]). She also seems to have played a role in the tone ofBaal worship in that she functioned as a goddess of both warfare andsexuality. Her portrayal in Ugaritic texts and in inscriptions fromEgypt suggests a lasciviousness that has become the definingcharacteristic of Canaanite worship and also seems to be at thecenter of the methodology implemented by Hosea to reach Israel, whichhad become ensnarled in a similar outlook regarding Yahweh (Hos.1–3).

Thedescriptions of Ashtoreth at Ugarit portray her in much the samelight as Anath. Some cultures such as Egypt and later Syria seem tohave even melded them together into one being. Whether this combiningwas a part of the Israelite conceptions is difficult to determine,although such a combination may explain why only Ashtoreth ismentioned in the biblical text as an individual deity and not Anath.In any case, Ashtoreth apparently was a primary figure in thecorruption of worship during the reign of Solomon (1 Kings 11:5,33; 2 Kings 23:13).

Summary.By the time the Israelites entered the land, they found a religionthat was already well established and accustomed to absorbing variousviewpoints into its expression and practice. Additionally, they founda religion that catered to the more base and animalistic tendenciesto which all humanity is drawn since the fall. The commonality ofsuch practices among almost all ancient cultures serves as a potentreminder of the distinctiveness and power of the biblical worldview.The narratives, poems, and prophetic oracles of the OT demonstrate aknowledge of these beliefs and an acknowledgment of their place inthe lives of everyday Israelites, but they never demonstrate asubmission to them in their portrayal of the true God and hisexpectations of his people.

The Bible does not have a generic term for the idea of color,but it does use various colors for descriptive and symbolic purposes,and it also refers to different coloring processes. Items can bedescribed as “dyed” (Exod. 25:5), “multicolored”(Ezek. 27:24), or “speckled” (Gen. 30:32) to indicatechanges or variety of color.

Certaincolors are commonly used in the Bible (listed below), while othersoccur rarely (e.g., brown and yellow) or not at all (e.g., orange),reflecting the range of colors and dyes available in the ancient NearEast. Colors are most often used for two purposes: to describe luxuryitems indicating wealth and power, and to describe the earthly andheavenly dwelling places of God. Ordinary people and places are notusually described in terms of the colors of their appearance.Exceptions to this include Esau (Gen. 25:25), David (1 Sam.17:42), and the male lover in Song of Songs (5:10–11).

Thefollowing colors have particular significance or symbolic meaning inthe Bible:

White.Used to describe the symptoms of leprosy (Lev. 13:3–4), whitemuch more commonly has a positive association, being the color ofpurity (Isa. 1:18; Rev. 3:4) and glory (Dan. 7:9; Matt. 17:2; Rev.1:14). Angels appear white (Matt. 28:3) or are dressed in white (Mark16:2; Acts 1:10). The multitude of worshipers in heaven will wearwhite robes (Rev. 7:9), having been washed in the blood of the Lamb.

Black.The female lover in the Song of Songs admires the raven black hair ofher beloved (Song 5:11). However, black things usually have lesspositive connotations: storm clouds (1 Kings 18:45), diseasedskin (Job 30:30), and the effects of the plague of locusts (Exod.10:15). Blackness can also be a sign of judgment (Rev. 6:5, 12).

Red.Red is the color of the earth, the color of wine, and the color ofblood. Red dyes could be made from crushed insects, plants, andminerals, giving a wide range of different shades (red, scarlet, andcrimson are common in the Bible). Scarlet yarn and red-dyed animalskins were included in the offerings made for the construction of thetabernacle (Exod. 25:3–5). Red was used to symbolize sin (Isa.1:18) and was also associated with warfare (Nah. 2:3; Rev. 6:4).

Blue.Blue tassels adorned every Hebrew garment as a reminder of God’scommandments (Num. 15:38). In the Persian court the royal colors wereblue, white, and purple (Esther 1:6; 8:15), and blue garments wereworn by the young Assyrian governors (Ezek. 23:6).

Purple.Purple dye was very expensive, so purple cloth was used as a sign ofwealth (Prov. 31:22; Acts 16:14) and a sign of authority: the kingsof Midian wore purple garments (Judg. 8:26); the wedding carriage ofKing Solomon was upholstered in purple (Song 3:10); the Babylonianking Belshazzar offered purple robes as a reward for service (Dan.5:7). Purple robes were put on Jesus before his crucifixion in amockery of his kingship (John 19:2–5).

Blue,purple, and scarlet were each separately associated with wealth andpower, but when used together these three colors were the epitome ofopulence and, as such, were associated with the divine presence. Thetabernacle curtains were woven from blue, purple, and scarlet yarn(Exod. 26:1), as were the high-priestly garments (28:4–15, 33).The same colors were later used in the temple curtains (2 Chron.3:14). Blue, purple, and red cloths were used for covering the Ark ofthe Covenant and its furnishings (Num. 4:6–12). Jeremiahdescribes idols adorned in blue and purple, an attempt to concealtheir worthlessness (10:9).

Gray.Gray hair indicated old age and thus wisdom (Ps. 71:18; Prov. 16:31).

Green.Green is the color of plants and thus was associated with life-givingfood and therefore God’s blessing. Green plants were given byGod for food (Gen. 1:30), so their removal or destruction was adevastating judgment (Exod. 10:15; Ezek. 17:24; Rev. 8:7). Peoplecould be symbolized as green plants when they were fruitful andblessed (Ps. 92:14; Jer. 17:8) or when they were easily destroyed(2 Kings 19:26; Ps. 37:2).

In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such asIsrael, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periodscould be hoped for each year, in February/March and inOctober/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a goodcrop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’spromise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4).Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of thispromise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would begiven to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:35–36).

Raincould also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives,where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the faceof the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rainaccompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).

Sincerain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbolof God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A strikingexample of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three yearsthe rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in Godwas vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. Theeffectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and laterfor rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James5:17–18).

Prophet, coworker of and then successor to Elijah. Both menresisted the Baal worship that infected the northern kingdom duringthe reign of Ahab and his successors (Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu,Jehoahaz, and Jehoash) in the latter half of the ninth and first halfof the eighth centuriesBC.

Elishabegan as a disciple of Elijah, whom God had used to confront Ahab andJezebel’s prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel (1Kings 18).When Elijah was taken to heaven, Elisha succeeded him (2Kings2:19–23). God accredited Elisha as prophet and demonstrated hisauthority through miracles. Many of the miracles involve water, suchas making the bitter water of Jericho drinkable (2Kings2:19–23) and raising an ax head from the bottom of the JordanRiver (6:1–7). These miracles were implicitly directed at Baaland his supporters, since Baal was thought to be a god whospecialized in providing and controlling the waters.

Elishaalso demonstrated God’s power and compassion with acts such asproviding a poor woman with olive oil (2Kings 4:1–7),curing a Syrian general of leprosy (2Kings 5), and even raisinga child from the dead (4:8–37).

Godalso told the prophet to anoint Hazael, king of Syria, and Jehu, amilitary man who usurped the throne of Israel (2Kings 8:7–15;9:1–13). God used these men to bring a violent conclusion tothose leaders who promoted the worship of Baal.

Elisha’smiracles continued even after his death. Some Israelites threw a deadman’s body in Elisha’s grave, and when it touchedElisha’s bones, the man sprang back to life (2Kings13:20–21).

“Esdraelon,” which does not appear in either ofthe two Testaments (although it does appear in the apocryphal book ofJudith), is the Greek form of the Hebrew “Jezreel,” whichoccurs often in the OT.

TheValley of Esdraelon (or Plain of Esdraelon) begins at the KishonRiver below Carmel, lies east of Carmel and Megiddo, south ofNazareth and the surrounding hill country of Galilee to the foot ofMount Tabor, and north of Jezreel. Rich and fertile, it is a largeportion of the valley that extends from the coastal plain of theMediterranean all the way to the Jordan Valley, severing the westernhills into their northern (Galilee) and central (Samaria) sectors.The Valley of Esdraelon is sometimes called the “Plain ofMegiddo,” the city of Megiddo being on the southern edge of thevalley at the foot of the hill country.

TheValley of Esdraelon was a key territory because it split the westernhills, and its road supplied the only access from the Mediterraneanto the Jordan Valley and beyond. For this reason, and also becausethe territory was so fertile, the area was of special interest toall, from the conquerors of other lands to those simply traversingthe trade routes from Tyre and Akko to Megiddo, to the Jordan Valleyand the Transjordan. Megiddo, at the south edge of the plain, held adominant place in trade because it was centrally and cruciallylocated.

Inthe OT conquest, the Valley of Esdraelon was the territory largelybelonging to Issachar and Zebulun (Josh. 19:10–23).Additionally, after the confrontation of Elijah with the prophets ofBaal on Carmel, the biblical text notes that the hand of Yahweh waswith Elijah as he outran Ahab to Jezreel (1Kings 18:45–46).Ahab rode in his chariot through this valley on his way back to thepalace and probably was hindered by the quagmire of the Kishon River(which drains the Esdraelon Valley) in the heavy storm predicted byElijah. Perhaps the defeat of Sisera in the Valley of Esdraelon cameabout in this same way if the Kishon overflowed its banks and theiron-wheeled chariots could not negotiate the mud (Judg. 4:1–16).

Theapocryphal book of Judith notes Esdraelon as the area near which thestory’s villain, Holofernes, was encamped when the heroine,Judith, assassinated him (7:3). See also Jezreel.

Definitionof Terms

Theterm “pagan” has two separate but related definitions inthe English language, both of which are somewhat misleading whenapplied to religions in the ancient Near East. The first definitiondefines a pagan as someone who follows a less-established religion ora person who is outside the mainstream of belief within a givensociety. Applying this definition to an ancient Near Eastern religionis somewhat misleading because often within biblical society theJewish or Christian belief system was the religion that was outsidethe mainstream. Being outside the mainstream certainly was a fact oflife for first-century Christians, who often were persecuted as ifthey were atheists and for their failure to acknowledge a pantheon ofgods, which was a mainstream belief. In OT society the competingreligions, especially the Canaanite and Babylonian pantheons,certainly were more widely accepted and followed. Even withinIsraelite society these non-Israelite religions offered a viablealternative to the religion of Yahweh. Thus, if one were to use thisdefinition either in the OT or the NT, it likely would need to beapplied to the religion of the Jews and Christians and not theprevailing religions of the Canaanites, the Babylonians, the Greeks,or the Romans.

Thesecond English definition of the term “pagan” involvesthe worship of the gods or forces of nature that control the world.This definition is applied specifically to agrarian societies, wherethe changing of seasons, the bringing of favorable weather andgrowing conditions for the crops, the possibility for prosperity thatgood weather brings, and a general desire for fertility are part ofthe religious understanding and belief system. While this definitioncertainly applies to many of the non-Israelite religions followed bythe Israelites’ neighbors and to some of the Greeks and Romansof the NT, it also would apply to many of the followers of Yahweh inthe OT who saw Yahweh as the God of the mountains and storms indirect conflict with the Baal myth, which ascribed these traits toBaal (see below). Therefore, it is prudent to remember that the label“pagan gods” is anachronistic and should be used withcare when discussing the religions described in the Bible.

Ona related note, the terminology of “idolatry” is alsooften misunderstood. Most of the non-Israelite religions discussed inthe Bible would have understood the images of their gods to berepresentations of the deity (or even a throne or meeting place forthe god) rather than an object of worship in its own right. Whilethey would have believed that the god dwelled in the object and waspresent when worship was being performed, they would not havebelieved that the object was the god. Most of the idols made in theancient Near East are indistinguishable from one another unless oneobserves their specific weapons. This, coupled with the idol’santhropomorphic representation, rather than a heavenlyrepresentation, suggests that the concern for early worshipers wasnot to worship an inanimate image, but rather to see a representationof the god who indwelled the image if worshiped correctly. It was thepresence of the god that was desired. Thus, the prohibition againstimages in the OT is a prohibition against trying to depict Yahweh inany physical form.

Whendealing with the non-Israelite gods of the Bible, it is helpful todivide them into historical periods. Within the OT, the majorgroupings of non-Israelite gods should include the gods of theCanaanites and the gods of the Babylonians (which are very similar tothe gods of the Assyrians). To a lesser degree the gods of thePhilistines, the Egyptians, and the Persians can also be considered.In the NT, the gods of the Greeks and the Romans (which often areassimilated Greek gods with new names) can be considered. Along withthese somewhat artificial historical divisions are innumerablepersonal gods and local gods worshiped by small groups of people oreven by a single town or village. For example, Gen. 31:30 referencesLaban’s gods, which Rachel steals when she leaves home totravel with Jacob. These personal gods likely played a huge role inthe day-to-day life of the average person, but most often they arelost to history. Similarly in the NT, the mystery religions of theGreeks and the Romans likely played an important role in the lives ofmany people, but they are difficult to reconstruct because of thelimited amount of documentation that has survived.

CanaanitePantheon

Thereis considerable overlap between the Canaanite pantheon and those ofthe Mesopotamian cultures, and often this can create some confusionabout the deities being discussed, especially their names andfunctions. Further complicating matters, the descriptions of godswithin the Mesopotamian pantheons often have fluid identities, asdifferent textual traditions conflict with each other at times. Boththe Canaanite and the Babylonian pantheons borrow heavily from theSumerian pantheon, which adds both to their similarities and to thepossibility of confusion.

Withoutquestion, the most important god within the Canaanite pantheon wasBaal. The story of Baal, often called the “Baal Cycle,”describes the life and deeds of Baal. The cult of Baal was afertility religion, and all the events of Baal’s life wereconnected to the changing seasons and nature’s fertility. TheBaal Cycle also explained how the worship of Baal affected theagricultural success of farmers. This detailed story of Baal was allbut unknown, except for a few details that could be gleaned from theBible, prior to the accidental discovery of the city of Ugarit andits extensive library in 1928 by a farmer plowing his field. The cityof Ugarit appears to have been a major trading center between theyears of about 1450 and 1200 BC. Besides Baal, other importantdeities within the pantheon were El, the elderly, long-bearded fathergod; Asherah, El’s wife, or occasionally portrayed as Baal’swife or sister; and Mot, the god of death, usually represented as asnake.

Baalwas the god of weather, especially thunder, lightning, and rain (Baalis almost always depicted with a lightning bolt in one hand and a rodof power in the other). Other representations or symbols of Baalinclude the bull (the strongest and most powerful animal of theancient Near East), water, mist, dew, grain, oil, and any othersymbol of fertility. Worship of Baal was intended to keep him happyin order to assure the coming of spring (preferably, early), thenecessary rain for crops, and finally the lengthening of summer sothat two crops could be planted and harvested. The second crop, whichoften was the crop that a farmer could sell for a profit (the firstbeing reserved for the farmer’s own food), was especially tiedto the favor of Baal. Baal was worshiped not only in hope ofa*gricultural prosperity but also for family fertility in terms ofchildren and for help in battle. The primary means for producing andkeeping the favor of Baal was by offering the firstfruits of anyharvest to him. When the first portion of a crop was harvested, itwas expected that a portion of that harvest (most often a tithe) beoffered to Baal in hopes of receiving his favor and extending thegrowing season. Not only were the first of the crops to be given toBaal but also the firstborn of all herded animals. It was also acommon practice for the firstborn of a family to be given to Baal inhuman sacrifice. Baal is often referred to as Molek in the Bible(e.g., Jer. 19) when describing human sacrifice. Another practice ofBaal worship was ritual sexual intercourse between a worshiper and apriest or a priestess. This ritual sexual activity was thought toincrease the fertility of the worshiper, thereby increasing thechances of having more children.

Apparentlyfor much of the history of Israel, especially during the monarchy,Baal worship offered an enticing alternative to the worship ofYahweh. In fact, the stories of Elijah and Elisha serve as a directpolemic against Baal worship. Most of the stories of Elijah andElisha use the symbols of Baal to demonstrate that Yahweh is muchstronger than Baal. By the time of the first century AD, Baal worshipwas a thing of the past, but some vestiges of the worship remained.For example, in the Gospels Jesus says that a person cannot worshipboth “God and money” (KJV: “mammon”) (Matt.6:24; Luke 16:13). The Greek word translated “money,”mamōnas, is borrowed from Aramaic and actually refers to theworship of Baal, but by Jesus’ time it had evolved to take onthe more generic definition “prosperity.”

Alongwith Baal, the worship of Asherah, a female member of the pantheon,was common. Although scholars are not completely sure of its form, itis believed that the reference in the OT to “Asherah poles”was likely a reference to a phallic symbol that represented fertility(Judg. 6:26; 1Kings 14:23). Recently, several references toAsherah have been discovered in Kuntillet ‘Ajrud innortheastern Sinai, dated to about the eighth century. Theseinscriptions say that Asherah was the consort of Yahweh rather thanBaal, providing further evidence for the amount of syncretism presentin Israel during the monarchy. Another female deity, Ashtoreth (knownalso by her Mesopotamian name, “Ishtar”), is called“Queen of Heaven” several times in the book of Jeremiah(7:18; 44:17–19,25).

Inrelationship to the infiltration of Baal worship into the northernkingdom is the debate about the nature of the “sin of Jeroboam”that was instituted by JeroboamI when he, along with the tennorthern tribes, ceded from Israel (1Kings 12:25–33). Atissue is whether Jeroboam was instituting a new religion based on thecalves, thus becoming syncretistic with these tribes’ northernPhoenician neighbors (which would have been tantamount to introducingBaal worship into Israel), or simply rejecting the centrality ofJerusalem for Yahweh worship (which only a few years before had beencentralized in Jerusalem by Solomon’s temple, resulting in thedisenfranchisem*nt of the Levites outside Jerusalem). Clearly, thesouthern kingdom viewed the events as apostasy, but whether thenorthern tribes did is unclear. Amos, for example, seems to focus hiscriticism of the cult at Bethel not on the worship itself but ratheron the hypocrisy of the worshipers, who were not following the law asprescribed in the Torah.

BabylonianPantheon

Althoughdebate continues over the exact relationship between the two, theBabylonian pantheon had many elements similar to the Canaanitepantheon. There are dozens of primary documents about the religion ofBabylon; the most important of them include the Enuma Elish, acreation story and apologetic for Marduk the chief of gods; theAtrahasis Epic, which has a version of the flood story in it; and theEpic of Gilgamesh, which describes the quest for eternal life by KingGilgamesh. Within the Babylonian pantheon, Marduk is the chief ofgods, who is also the patron god of Babylonia. The Enuma Elish, whichdescribes the creation of the world, deals primarily with theascension of Marduk to the role of chief god by destroying the forcesof chaos represented by the monster Tiamat and bringing order to boththe pantheon and the natural world. Marduk, like Baal, had retainedthe most powerful cosmic weapons, which include water, rain, and war.The Epic of Gilgamesh describes the journey of King Gilgamesh, who ispart human and part divine, in search of immortality. During thecourse of his trip, he learns that eternal life is reserved for thegods, and humans must make their mark on the world by what they doduring their lives. The Babylonian religion and pantheon exerted itsstrongest influence on Israel during the exile. The biblical textclearly has been influenced by these Babylonian beliefs. However, theBible consistently presents these viewpoints as contrary to the trueworship of Yahweh and insists that only Yahweh deserves worship asthe true creator of the world, vanquisher of chaos, and provider ofprosperity and life.

OtherAncient Near Eastern Pantheons

TheEgyptian gods are mentioned only briefly in the Bible. The most overtreferences to the gods of Egypt are found in the story of the tenplagues, which most scholars believe was a direct attack on thedeities of Egypt by Yahweh. It is unclear if the calf described inExod. 32 should be understood as an Egyptian god, a completely new ordifferent god, or as a forbidden representation of Yahweh.

Littleis known about the Philistine pantheon of gods, but it appears to bequite similar to the Canaanite pantheon (if not the same with localvariations). The Philistines’ chief god, referred to in theBible as “Dagon” (Judg. 16:23; 1Sam. 5:2–7;1Chron. 10:10), likely also went by the name “Baal-Zebul”(“Lord Prince”), which in the OT is mocked by beingchanged to “Baal-Zebub” (“Lord of the Flies”)(2Kings 1:2–3, 6, 16). In the NT, this god is recalledwhen the Pharisees accuse Jesus of being in league with Satan (Matt.12:24; Luke 11:15 [Gk. Beelzeboul]). Because the Philistines wereknown as the Sea Peoples, it is not surprising that this deity hadseveral fishlike qualities (including a fish tail).

NewTestament Religion

Inthe NT, the Greek pantheon that was subsumed by the Roman pantheonwas the common religious expression of the day. Like other ancientpantheons, these pantheons tried to explain the natural world by theinvolvement of various deities in nature. Proof that Jews living inthe province of Judah were under constant pressure to assimilate tothe Greek religion is provided in the reports of the books ofMaccabees that describe the Jewish revolt against the Seleucids inwhat was essentially a religious war against assimilation. In theGospels, little is said about the Greek or Roman pantheons, but thebook of Acts contains several reports of Paul’s interactionwith the Greeks and their religious practices. Especially notable isPaul’s interaction with the Athenians when he debatedphilosophers who were followers of the “Unknown God”(Acts 17:23). Three other deities are named in Acts, includingArtemis in Ephesus (Acts 19:24, 27–28, 34–35), whom theRomans called “Diana,” and Zeus and Hermes (Acts14:12–13), called “Jupiter” and “Mercury”by the Romans, whom Paul and Barnabas were mistaken for in Lystrawhen Paul preached and healed a crippled man.

Summary

Theproblem of God’s people Israel worshiping other gods permeatesmost of biblical history. These reports range over time from theearly story of Rachel in Genesis, to the period of the judges whenMicah’s images (Judg. 17:1–6) and Gideon’s ephod(Judg. 8:26–27) were worshiped, to when Solomon and his wiveswere worshiping foreign gods (1Kings 11:5–8), to the timeof Ahab when all Israel followed Baal, whom Elijah vanquished onMount Carmel (1Kings 18:16–46). Depending on when onedates the book of Deuteronomy, the strong prohibitions againstidolatry either went unheeded (if Moses wrote the book) or were aculminating statement of the anti-idolatry Deuteronomistic writerjust before the exile. There is considerable debate about when Israelbecame an exclusively monotheistic nation (if it ever did), but bythe eighth century BC, Isaiah and Amos castigate worshipers of thesefalse gods. Clearly, by the time of Jeremiah, some factions withinIsrael (the prophet included) have begun to question whether the godsof the other nations even exist (Jer. 2:28). Finally, with thedestruction of the temple in Jerusalem, ironically, the worship ofother gods is ended. It is certain that by the time of the firstcentury AD, the evolution to a monotheistic view is complete, andPaul can claim that an “idol is nothing” (1Cor.8:4), and that any sin is tantamount to idolatry (Eph.5:5).

The law warns against those who claim to speak for God butwhose words are not from God. Such false prophets are exposed whentheir predictions go unfulfilled, but even a prophet who makes truepredictions is false if he or she encourages idolatry. False prophetsmust be put to death (Deut. 13:1–5; 18:20–22).

Duringthe monarchy, some false prophets blatantly promoted Baalism (1Kings18:19; Jer. 2:8; 23:13). Others seemed orthodox but, motivated bygreed (Jer. 6:13; 8:10; Mic. 3:5, 11; cf. Luke 6:26), actually saidwhatever people wanted to hear (1Kings 22:6; cf. 2Chron.18:5; 28; Isa. 30:10; Jer. 5:31; Ezek. 22:27–28). A frequentmark of these prophets was that they stressed God’sfaithfulness to promises of blessing while ignoring his faithfulnessto promises of judgment. According to them, Israel would never bedefeated, however much the people sinned (Jer. 6:14; 8:11; 23:17;Ezek. 13:10, 16; Mic. 2:6); the false prophets themselves set anexample of licentiousness (Isa. 28:7; Jer. 23:14–15).Ironically, the complacency that this engendered increased Israel’sdanger (Jer. 14:13–16; 23:19–22; 27:9–18; Lam.2:14; Ezek. 13:5).

Oftendirect confrontations took place between true and false prophets(e.g., 1Kings 18; Neh. 6:14; Jer. 20:1–6; 26:8–11;28–29; Mic. 2:6). The true prophets pleaded with Israel toreject false prophecy (Jer. 23:16; 29:8–9). They pronouncedjudgment on both the prophets and their followers (Isa. 9:14–15;Jer. 2:26; 4:9; 8:1; 13:13; 23:33–39; 50:36; Ezek. 13; Zeph.3:4; Zech. 13:2–6). False prophets would become blind to thetruth they denied and become unable to prophesy at all (Isa. 29:10;Ezek. 7:26; Mic. 3:6). Their false predictions would be frustrated(Isa. 44:25; Jer. 37:19), and in particular the exile that they saidwould never happen was now inevitable (Jer. 14:15–18).

Falseprophecy was as much a danger in the NT era as it was in the OT.Jesus warned that “wolves in sheep’s clothing”would continue to lead many astray. Some would either promote theworship of false messiahs or even pretend to be the Messiah (Matt.24:23–24; Mark 13:21–22), but, as ever, they could beidentified by their “fruit” (Matt. 7:15–23; 24:11).

Paulsaid that any so-called prophet who opposed his own teaching, or whotaught error while claiming that the teaching came from Paul himself,was false (1Cor. 14:37; 2Thess. 2:2; cf. 2Cor.11:4; Gal. 1:8). Luke called Elymas the sorcerer, who opposed Paul, afalse prophet (Acts 13:6–12). More generally, Peter saw allheretical teachers as direct successors of the false prophets of theOT, denying the Lord and exploiting the people for gain (2Pet.2:1). They replicate the error of Balaam (2Pet. 2:15–16).For John, the particular mark of the false prophet was the denialthat Jesus is the Christ (1John 4:1–3). The third figurein the bestial false trinity in John’s Revelation is called“the false prophet” (Rev. 16:13; 19:20; 20:10) andentices men and women to worship the dragon rather than Jesus.

Famine was the most devastating catastrophe to an agrariansociety. Caused by drought, crop failure, or siege (Ruth 1:1–2;2Kings 25), it often was accompanied by disease or war, whichin turn brought adversity to many levels of society (Jer. 14:12;Matt. 24:7), including that of the animals (Job 38:41; Joel 1:20).

Dependenceon rainfall caused some people to stockpile in anticipation ofpossible famine. In Egypt, Joseph implemented a grain ration thatsaved the people, supplied seed, and filled Pharaoh’s royalstorehouses (Gen. 41:33–36; 47:23–24). Israel’s owntemple contained storerooms (1Chron. 26:15; Neh. 10:38–39).God used famine to encourage obedience from the Israelites (Deut.11:17; 28:33) and as divine judgment upon them (Lev. 26:14–20;Jer. 29:17–18).

Famineshad far-reaching results: price inflation, robbery, socialexploitation, agricultural collapse, migration, and even cannibalism(Gen. 12:10; 26:1; Ruth 1; 2Kings 6:24–29; Neh. 5:1–3;Lam. 2:20–21; 4:8–10). Therefore, faithfulness to God wasa particularly vivid reality (Pss. 33:18–19; 37:19), and God’sblessings on the nation included its being free from famine (Ezek.34:29; 36:29–30).

Josephunderstood that God sent him ahead to Egypt to save his family froman international famine (Gen. 45:5–7). For forty years Godtested the Israelites with hunger to rid them of self-reliance (Exod.16:2–8; Deut. 8:2, 16). Moreover, God sent afflictions onIsrael such as famine, drought, mildew, blight, and insects in orderto arouse national repentance (Amos 4:6–12). This meant thatsin and human suffering were tied to the land in interdependence(Lam. 4:3–4). Elijah’s contest with the Canaaniteprophets of Baal vividly shows the theological implications of faithand food: Yahweh would prove that he was in control of nature’sforces (1Kings 18:23–39; cf. Gen. 8:22). Even Elijah,however, required special divine care through this famine (1Kings17:1–6). For Amos, literal hunger funded his description ofdesperate spiritual hunger, “a famine ... ofhearing the words of the Lord” (Amos 8:11).

Jesusrelived Israel’s experience in his own wilderness testing andrejected the bread that he could make for himself (Matt. 4:3–4;Deut. 8:3). His success showed that scarcity and hunger are intendedto develop humility and trust in God, the divine provider (Matt.4:2), something that Israel did not learn very well. Jesus fed asecond manna to five thousand people to draw them to the bread oflife (John 6:35), but the crowds followed Jesus more for the foodthan for him (6:26–27). Famines are mentioned in the NT (Luke4:25; Acts 7:11 [historical]; 11:27–30 [contemporary]).

Jesustaught that famines would be a sign of his coming. Yet, withoutignoring physical food, Jesus highlighted the spiritual hunger andthirst of people (Matt. 5:6; John 4:14, 34; 7:37–38). Becauseeating is a powerful part of fellowship, heaven will merely removethe desperation of hunger, not the use of food (Gen. 43:34; Luke22:15–16; Rev. 19:9; cf. 1Cor. 4:11; Rev. 7:16; 21:4).

Agriculture is the practice of producing food throughcultivation and harvesting. For the biblical Israelites and theirancestors, it was one of the primary expressions of subsistence intheir economy and life. The priority of agricultural pursuits forIsrael’s worldview is indicated in the fact that it was amongthe first mandates given by God to man in the garden (Gen. 1:28–29).This primacy of place in agricultural concerns meant that care andstewardship of the land was the prerogative of every member ofsociety. In fact, individuals, the priesthood, and the monarchy couldall possess and care for the land (Num. 27:1–8; 35:1–8;1 Chron. 27:26–28).

Theprimary produce of the biblical farmer included cereals (wheat,barley, millet), legumes (beans, peas), olives, and grapes.Additional, less predominant crops included nuts (almonds, walnuts,pistachios), herbs (cumin, coriander, sesame), and vegetables(cucumbers, onions, greens). The production of the various crops waslargely limited to certain geographic regions of Israel (such as thecoastal plain or the plains of Moab) because much of the land was illsuited for agriculture, being rocky and arid.

Theentire calendar in most ancient Near Eastern societies centered onthe agricultural cycle, and many important biblical feasts includedsome connection with the seasonal calendar. For Israel, some of thefirst festivals were linked to the agricultural seasons (Exod.23:14–16; Lev. 23). Cereals were sown at the Feast ofBooths/Tabernacles (late October) and harvested in middle to latespring at the Feasts of Passover (March) and Weeks/Pentecost (May).Grapes and other fruit were harvested in late summer into the fall.

Theactual craft of agriculture involved the three steps of sowing,reaping, and threshing/production. The fields typically were plowedfollowing the first autumn rains, and sowing lasted about two months.Harvest season lasted seven months in all. Cereal products wentthrough the process of threshing, whereas fruits were immediatelyproduced into wine or dried. The practice of threshing the grainsmostly took place on threshing floors located adjacent to the fields.The threshing floors were designed as a circle, generally 25 to 40feet in diameter. Typically animals such as donkeys or oxen weredriven around the floor as the grains were fed into their paths andsubsequently crushed. The resulting broken husks were then throwninto the air, allowing the wind to carry away the chaff and producinga separated grain that could then be cleaned and processed for homeuse.

Besidesplaying a significant role in the practical matters of life,agricultural practices found numerous applications in the images andideals of the biblical writers (Judg. 8:2; 9:8–15; Ezek.17:6–10). The medium could be used to express both blessingsand curses. Several texts point to the cursing of agriculturalendeavors as a punishment from God. Ceremonial defilement was apossibility if proper methodology in sowing seeds was not followed(Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:9). Similarly, Yahweh’s assessment ofIsrael’s failure to uphold the covenant commitments could leadto disease, locust attacks, crop failure, and total loss of the land(Deut. 28:40; Joel 1:4; Amos 7:1). Conversely, agricultural bountyand blessings were also a part of covenant stipulations. Indeed, manyof the offerings themselves were centered on agriculture (Lev. 2;Num. 18:8–32). Even the Sabbath rest itself was extended tomatters of agriculture and care for the land (Lev. 25:1–7).Finally, the covenant saw some of the greatest benefits of lifebefore Yahweh as being blessed through agricultural bounty (Deut.28:22; Amos 9:13). In a few cases, agricultural imagery cut bothways. For instance, the vine was an image that could expressjudgment, care, and restoration in both Judaism and Christianity(Isa. 5:1–8; John 15:1–11). Despite the link betweenagricultural realities and the covenant, the Scriptures are verycareful to distinguish Israel from the fertility cults of itsCanaanite neighbors (1 Kings 18:17–40; Hos. 2:8–9).This distinction also seems to have found expression in certain NTtexts (1 Cor. 6:15–20).

Agriculture is the practice of producing food throughcultivation and harvesting. For the biblical Israelites and theirancestors, it was one of the primary expressions of subsistence intheir economy and life. The priority of agricultural pursuits forIsrael’s worldview is indicated in the fact that it was amongthe first mandates given by God to man in the garden (Gen. 1:28–29).This primacy of place in agricultural concerns meant that care andstewardship of the land was the prerogative of every member ofsociety. In fact, individuals, the priesthood, and the monarchy couldall possess and care for the land (Num. 27:1–8; 35:1–8;1 Chron. 27:26–28).

Theprimary produce of the biblical farmer included cereals (wheat,barley, millet), legumes (beans, peas), olives, and grapes.Additional, less predominant crops included nuts (almonds, walnuts,pistachios), herbs (cumin, coriander, sesame), and vegetables(cucumbers, onions, greens). The production of the various crops waslargely limited to certain geographic regions of Israel (such as thecoastal plain or the plains of Moab) because much of the land was illsuited for agriculture, being rocky and arid.

Theentire calendar in most ancient Near Eastern societies centered onthe agricultural cycle, and many important biblical feasts includedsome connection with the seasonal calendar. For Israel, some of thefirst festivals were linked to the agricultural seasons (Exod.23:14–16; Lev. 23). Cereals were sown at the Feast ofBooths/Tabernacles (late October) and harvested in middle to latespring at the Feasts of Passover (March) and Weeks/Pentecost (May).Grapes and other fruit were harvested in late summer into the fall.

Theactual craft of agriculture involved the three steps of sowing,reaping, and threshing/production. The fields typically were plowedfollowing the first autumn rains, and sowing lasted about two months.Harvest season lasted seven months in all. Cereal products wentthrough the process of threshing, whereas fruits were immediatelyproduced into wine or dried. The practice of threshing the grainsmostly took place on threshing floors located adjacent to the fields.The threshing floors were designed as a circle, generally 25 to 40feet in diameter. Typically animals such as donkeys or oxen weredriven around the floor as the grains were fed into their paths andsubsequently crushed. The resulting broken husks were then throwninto the air, allowing the wind to carry away the chaff and producinga separated grain that could then be cleaned and processed for homeuse.

Besidesplaying a significant role in the practical matters of life,agricultural practices found numerous applications in the images andideals of the biblical writers (Judg. 8:2; 9:8–15; Ezek.17:6–10). The medium could be used to express both blessingsand curses. Several texts point to the cursing of agriculturalendeavors as a punishment from God. Ceremonial defilement was apossibility if proper methodology in sowing seeds was not followed(Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:9). Similarly, Yahweh’s assessment ofIsrael’s failure to uphold the covenant commitments could leadto disease, locust attacks, crop failure, and total loss of the land(Deut. 28:40; Joel 1:4; Amos 7:1). Conversely, agricultural bountyand blessings were also a part of covenant stipulations. Indeed, manyof the offerings themselves were centered on agriculture (Lev. 2;Num. 18:8–32). Even the Sabbath rest itself was extended tomatters of agriculture and care for the land (Lev. 25:1–7).Finally, the covenant saw some of the greatest benefits of lifebefore Yahweh as being blessed through agricultural bounty (Deut.28:22; Amos 9:13). In a few cases, agricultural imagery cut bothways. For instance, the vine was an image that could expressjudgment, care, and restoration in both Judaism and Christianity(Isa. 5:1–8; John 15:1–11). Despite the link betweenagricultural realities and the covenant, the Scriptures are verycareful to distinguish Israel from the fertility cults of itsCanaanite neighbors (1 Kings 18:17–40; Hos. 2:8–9).This distinction also seems to have found expression in certain NTtexts (1 Cor. 6:15–20).

Agriculture is the practice of producing food throughcultivation and harvesting. For the biblical Israelites and theirancestors, it was one of the primary expressions of subsistence intheir economy and life. The priority of agricultural pursuits forIsrael’s worldview is indicated in the fact that it was amongthe first mandates given by God to man in the garden (Gen. 1:28–29).This primacy of place in agricultural concerns meant that care andstewardship of the land was the prerogative of every member ofsociety. In fact, individuals, the priesthood, and the monarchy couldall possess and care for the land (Num. 27:1–8; 35:1–8;1 Chron. 27:26–28).

Theprimary produce of the biblical farmer included cereals (wheat,barley, millet), legumes (beans, peas), olives, and grapes.Additional, less predominant crops included nuts (almonds, walnuts,pistachios), herbs (cumin, coriander, sesame), and vegetables(cucumbers, onions, greens). The production of the various crops waslargely limited to certain geographic regions of Israel (such as thecoastal plain or the plains of Moab) because much of the land was illsuited for agriculture, being rocky and arid.

Theentire calendar in most ancient Near Eastern societies centered onthe agricultural cycle, and many important biblical feasts includedsome connection with the seasonal calendar. For Israel, some of thefirst festivals were linked to the agricultural seasons (Exod.23:14–16; Lev. 23). Cereals were sown at the Feast ofBooths/Tabernacles (late October) and harvested in middle to latespring at the Feasts of Passover (March) and Weeks/Pentecost (May).Grapes and other fruit were harvested in late summer into the fall.

Theactual craft of agriculture involved the three steps of sowing,reaping, and threshing/production. The fields typically were plowedfollowing the first autumn rains, and sowing lasted about two months.Harvest season lasted seven months in all. Cereal products wentthrough the process of threshing, whereas fruits were immediatelyproduced into wine or dried. The practice of threshing the grainsmostly took place on threshing floors located adjacent to the fields.The threshing floors were designed as a circle, generally 25 to 40feet in diameter. Typically animals such as donkeys or oxen weredriven around the floor as the grains were fed into their paths andsubsequently crushed. The resulting broken husks were then throwninto the air, allowing the wind to carry away the chaff and producinga separated grain that could then be cleaned and processed for homeuse.

Besidesplaying a significant role in the practical matters of life,agricultural practices found numerous applications in the images andideals of the biblical writers (Judg. 8:2; 9:8–15; Ezek.17:6–10). The medium could be used to express both blessingsand curses. Several texts point to the cursing of agriculturalendeavors as a punishment from God. Ceremonial defilement was apossibility if proper methodology in sowing seeds was not followed(Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:9). Similarly, Yahweh’s assessment ofIsrael’s failure to uphold the covenant commitments could leadto disease, locust attacks, crop failure, and total loss of the land(Deut. 28:40; Joel 1:4; Amos 7:1). Conversely, agricultural bountyand blessings were also a part of covenant stipulations. Indeed, manyof the offerings themselves were centered on agriculture (Lev. 2;Num. 18:8–32). Even the Sabbath rest itself was extended tomatters of agriculture and care for the land (Lev. 25:1–7).Finally, the covenant saw some of the greatest benefits of lifebefore Yahweh as being blessed through agricultural bounty (Deut.28:22; Amos 9:13). In a few cases, agricultural imagery cut bothways. For instance, the vine was an image that could expressjudgment, care, and restoration in both Judaism and Christianity(Isa. 5:1–8; John 15:1–11). Despite the link betweenagricultural realities and the covenant, the Scriptures are verycareful to distinguish Israel from the fertility cults of itsCanaanite neighbors (1 Kings 18:17–40; Hos. 2:8–9).This distinction also seems to have found expression in certain NTtexts (1 Cor. 6:15–20).

In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such asIsrael, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periodscould be hoped for each year, in February/March and inOctober/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a goodcrop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’spromise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4).Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of thispromise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would begiven to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:35–36).

Raincould also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives,where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the faceof the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rainaccompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).

Sincerain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbolof God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A strikingexample of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three yearsthe rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in Godwas vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. Theeffectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and laterfor rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James5:17–18).

In the Bible, gestures are made with either parts of the bodyor items, such as clothing and rings, directly connected to the body.For this reason, it makes sense to classify biblical gestures inrelation to the different body parts that are identified with thegestures. It is, however, challenging to know where to draw a line onclassifying a gesture. For example, a devious person is described inProv. 6:13 as one “who winks maliciously with his eye, signalswith his feet and motions with his fingers.” It is unclearwhether this is a single gesture or multiple ones, and whether allsignify different things or the same thing.

Head

Gesturesthat relate to the head range from simple head motions to semiviolentacts such as hair pulling. Simple head motions include lifting ofone’s head in honor (Gen. 40:13), bowing one’s head inmourning (Ps. 35:14), tossing one’s head in mockery andderision (2Kings 19:21), and shaking one’s head as insult(Ps. 22:7; Mark 15:29).

Acommon action is the shaving of the head, which can be forpurification (Lev. 14:8–9; Num. 6:9; 8:7 [includes all bodyhair]), mourning (Deut. 21:11–13; Job 1:20; Isa. 15:2; Jer.16:6; 47:5; 48:37; Ezek. 27:31; Amos 8:10; Mic. 1:16), remorse (Jer.41:5), or shaming (Jer. 2:16). However, priests are forbidden fromshaving their heads even in mourning (Lev. 21:5; Ezek. 44:20), whilethe high priest is to wear a turban on his head during sacrificialduties (Exod. 29:6).

Anointingof the head is done when a priest or king is installed (Exod. 29:7;Ps. 23:5) or simply as a sign of God’s goodness and blessing ona person (Eccles. 9:8). Blessing may also involve placing a hand onthe head of the person being blessed (Gen. 48:14–18; Exod.29:19), while the same gesture on the head of sacrificial animals isa symbolic means of transferring sin (Lev. 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15, 24,29, 33; 8:18, 22).

Inthe OT, a woman’s head can be shaved in mourning (Deut.21:12–13; cf. Jer. 47:5), but in the NT, a shaved head can be acause for disgrace (1Cor. 11:5–6).

Face.Facial gestures range from expressions to actions such as touching orcovering the face. A face can be downcast in anger (Gen. 4:5–6)or bowed to the ground in honor (Gen. 48:12), in dejection (Josh.7:6), in humility (Ruth 2:10), in worship (2Chron. 20:18; Ps.138:2), in subjection, supplication, reverence (1Sam. 20:41;25:41; 28:14; 2Sam. 14:4, 22; 18:28; 24:20; 1Kings 1:23;1Chron. 21:20), or in dread (e.g., Moses before Yahweh [Exod.3:6]).

Theface can be covered or veiled as an indication of uncleanness (Lev.13:45), in grief/mourning (2Sam. 19:4; Ezek. 24:17), inresignation (1Kings 19:13), with intent to deceive in adultery(Job 24:15), or in horror of judgment (Esther 7:8; Ezek. 12:6, 12).It can also be buried in the dust in remorse (Lam. 3:29).

Godcan be described as hiding or turning away his face againstwickedness and evil (Deut. 31:18; 32:20; Ps. 34:16; Isa. 8:17; Jer.33:5; Ezek. 7:22; 15:7; 20:46; 21:2) or in an act of withholdingblessings (Job 13:15; Pss. 10:1; 13:1; 27:9; 30:7; 34:16; Isa. 54:8;59:2; 64:7). God can also turn his face toward a place in judgment(Ezek. 4:3, 7; 6:2). In 1Sam. 5:3–4 the idol of thePhilistine god Dagon falls facedown before the ark of the covenant,apparently overpowered by Yahweh.

Actsof humiliation or dishonor can involve spitting in the face (Num.12:14; Deut. 25:9; Job 17:6; 30:10; Isa. 50:6), slapping the face(1Kings 22:24; 2Chron. 18:23; Job 16:10; Lam. 3:30; Mic.5:1), pulling a skirt up over someone’s face in shamingjudgment (Jer. 13:26; Nah. 3:5), and hooking and dragging someone bythe nose (2Kings 19:28). Although being struck on the cheek ishumiliating, Jesus instructs his disciples to “turn the othercheek” as a sign of resistance to violence (Matt. 5:39; Luke6:29).

Onecan lift one’s face in worship (2Kings 20:2; Job 22:26;Isa. 38:2) or in confidence (Job 11:15) and can fail to lift it inshame and disgrace (Ezra 9:6). Although the shaving of beards inmourning is common practice (Ezra 9:3; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37),the forced shaving of beards is an act of shaming and insulting(2Sam. 10:4; 1Chron. 19:4–5; Isa. 7:20; 50:6).

Eyes.Winking the eye is perceived as an evil, deceptive, or malicious act(Ps. 35:19; Prov. 6:13; 16:30). Eyes can be lifted up in worship andexpectation (Pss. 121:1; 123:1).

Mouth.Pursed lips can characterize an evil person (Prov. 16:30), while ahand can be clapped over the mouth in awe and submission (Job 21:5;40:4). Psalm 72:9 looks to the righteous king before whom the deserttribes will bow and whose “enemies lick the dust” indefeat.

Ears.An Israelite slave for life is to have a hole punched through his orher earlobe, held against a doorpost, with an awl (Exod. 21:6; Deut.15:17). Blood is sprinkled on the lobe of the right ear forpurification (Exod. 29:20; Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17), whilesupplication can be described as asking for the turning of an ear(2Kings 19:16; Ps. 31:2). Turning one’s ear signifiespaying attention or taking something to heart (Ps. 49:4; Prov. 4:20;5:13).

Neck.The neck can be adorned (Song 1:10) as a sign of pride and honor(Gen. 41:42; Judg. 5:30; Prov. 1:9; Ezek. 16:11) or outstretched inarrogance (Ps. 75:5 TNIV: “Do not lift your horns againstheaven; do not speak with outstretched neck”). Jeremiah put ayoke on his neck as a prophetic sign of the approaching Babylonianconquest (Jer. 27–28). While putting someone’s neck in ayoke is an act of triumphal conquest (Ps. 105:18), stepping on theneck of a subdued enemy is an act of subjugation and humiliation(Josh. 10:24).

Body

Nakednessin public is considered shameful (Gen. 9:22–23; Nah. 3:5; Rev.3:18), so that it is sometimes pictured as part of divine judgment(Deut. 28:48; Isa. 47:2–3; Lam. 1:8; Mic. 1:11) or as a sign ofpromiscuity (Isa. 57:8; Ezek. 16:36). An unkempt body can be a signof mourning, as it is for Mephibosheth (2Sam. 19:24). A certainkind of body covering is a sign of marriage proposal or protection(Ezek. 16:8; 23:18; Hos. 2:9). Body dismembering, even in war, is anact of humiliation (2Sam. 4:12).

Chest.In self-mortification, one can pound one’s chest in mourning(Ezek. 21:12) or in remorse (Jer. 31:19; Luke 18:13). The breasts ofsacrificial animals are waved before God as a “wave offering”before being eaten (Exod. 29:26; Lev. 7:30; Num. 6:20).

Hand,arm.Hand gestures include motions such as lifting hands in worship,clapping hands in joy, and clapping a hand over one’s mouth inawe. The expression “outstretched arm” (Exod. 6:6; Deut.4:34; 5:15; 7:19; 9:29; 11:2; 26:8; 1Kings 8:42; 2Kings17:36; 2Chron. 6:32; Ps. 136:12; Jer. 21:5; 27:5; 32:17, 21;Ezek. 20:33–34) indicates power, might, strength. It is oftenused of God to indicate his ability to defeat powerful armies andenemies. God is implored by the psalmist to lift his hand and act forthe sake of the righteous (Ps. 10:12).

Sincethe right hand is the hand of power, the act of sitting at the righthand indicates being favored (1Kings 2:19; Ps. 110:1; Matt.22:44; Mark 12:36; Luke 20:43; Acts 2:35; Heb. 1:3; 8:1; 10:12; 12:2;1Pet. 3:22). When taking an oath, one places a hand under thethigh/crotch (Gen. 24:2; 47:29), most likely the right hand (see Gen.48:14, 17–18; Lev. 8:23; 14:14).

Clappingthe hands can be a sign of awe (Ezek. 6:11), malice, or remorse(25:6), while a bared arm can be a sign of judgment (4:7). Job clapshis hand over his mouth in awe of God and in submission andrepentance (Job 40:4–5).

Handscan be lifted in worship (1Kings 8:22; 1Tim. 2:8), tobeseech (Ps. 28:2), to protect and bless (Ps. 10:12), in an oath(Deut. 32:40), or to harm (Exod. 24:11; 1Sam. 24:6, 10;2Sam.1:14; 18:12).

Pilatewashes his hands to proclaim his innocence over the death of Jesus(Matt. 27:24), while 1Pet. 5:6 urges believers to humblethemselves “under God’s mighty hand,” so that indue time they will be lifted up.

Buttocks.Exposure of the buttocks can serve as a humiliating insult andprovocation, as happens to David’s men (2Sam. 10:4;1Chron. 19:4) and Egyptian and Cush*te captives (Isa. 20:4).

Leg.The leg or thigh is often a euphemism for the male reproductiveorgans, so that putting one’s hand under a thigh in oath (Gen.24:2; 47:29) may involve actually grabbing the genitalia. Animalthighs are waved to God in offering before being consumed (Lev. 9:21;10:14; Num. 6:20), while oaths administered to uncover adultery causea guilty woman’s thighs to waste (Num. 5:2–27).

Themost common gesture involving the knee is bowing, in worship orreverence (Deut. 33:3; Isa. 45:23; Rom. 11:4; 14:11; Phil. 2:10), indefeat (2Sam. 22:40; Ps. 18:38; Isa. 60:14), in distress (Ps.57:6), or in respect (1Kings 1:31). In what seems to be asomewhat awkward position, Elijah puts his face between his knees inprayer (1Kings 18:42).

Feet.Gestures involving the feet are probably the most common gestures inthe Bible. Feet can be washed in hospitality (Gen. 18:4; 19:2; 24:32;43:24; 1Sam. 25:41), in ablution (Exod. 30:19, 21; 40:31), orin supplication (1Sam. 25:41). Feet can be bathed in oil as ablessing (Deut. 33:24), uncovered in marriage proposals (Ezek. 16:8;cf. Ruth 3:4, 7), and stamped in remorse (Ezek. 25:6), and sandalscan be removed from them in honor (Exod. 3:1–10) or disgrace(Deut. 25:9). The heavenly seraphs cover their feet in supplicationbefore the throne of God (Isa. 6:2), while the feet of humans cansignal deception (Prov. 6:13).

Enemiescan be placed under one’s feet in subjugation (1Kings5:3; Pss. 8:6; 18:39; 45:5; 47:3; 110:1; Mal. 4:3; Rom. 16:20), havetheir feet shackled or ensnared (Job 13:27; 33:11; Pss. 25:15;105:18), and be forced to lick the feet of victors in humiliation anddefeat (Isa. 49:23). The righteous will bathe their feet in the bloodof their enemies in revenge (Pss. 58:10; 68:23).

Thoseoverwhelmed can grovel at the feet of the powerful (2Kings4:27, 37; Esther 8:3; Matt. 28:9; Mark 5:33; 7:25; Acts 10:25), whilethose emboldened can rise to their feet in confidence (Ezek. 2:1–2;3:24; Dan. 8:18).

Inthe NT, dust can be shaken off one’s feet as an indication ofdivine judgment (Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11; Luke 9:5), even as lying ata person’s feet is a recognition of authority/submission (Matt.15:30; Mark 5:33; Luke 8:28, 35, 41, 47; 10:39; 17:16; Acts 4:37;5:2). A woman publicly washes Jesus’ feet with her tears, wipesthem with her hair, and kisses and perfumes them in what seems an actof love and repentance; but Jesus indicates that she has prepared hisbody for burial (Luke 7:38–46; John 11:2; 12:3). Jesus washeshis disciples’ feet as instruction on servanthood anddiscipleship (John 13:5–14).

Fingers,Toes.Different fingers seem to have different roles assigned them. Afinger sprinkles blood in cleansing (Lev. 4:6, 17, 25, 30, 34; 8:15;9:9; 14:16; 16:14, 19; Num. 19:4), while blood on the tip of theright thumb and on the right big toe is for cleansing (Exod. 29:20;Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17, 25, 28).

Onewears a signet ring as a sign of power (Esther 3:10) or a gesture ofrestoration and forgiveness (Luke 15:22). But fingers can also motionin deception (Prov. 6:13) or point in blame (Isa. 58:9). Jesus writeswith his finger on the ground, apparently as a gesture ofindifference to those pointing accusing fingers (John 8:6).

Clothesand Shoes

Garments.Garments attain significance as they are related to specificemotions. Wearing sackcloth and ashes in mourning is common (Gen.37:34; Ezek. 7:18; 2Sam. 3:31), while ripping garments inmourning is also frequently attested (Gen. 37:34; 44:13; Lev. 10:6;21:10; Josh. 7:6; 2Sam. 1:11; 3:31; 13:31; 1Kings 21:27;2Kings 2:12; 19:1; Esther 4:1; Isa. 32:11; 37:1; Jer. 41:5).

Rippingsomeone’s clothing to expose nakedness (Ezek. 16:39; 2Sam.10:4) or pulling a person’s skirts up over the face (Jer.13:26) is an act of shaming or insulting. But tearing one’sclothes off can be a sign of fury (Matt. 26:65). Persons withdefiling diseases are expected to warn off others by wearing tornclothes and shouting, “Unclean! Unclean!” (Lev. 13:45).

Bylaying their clothes at Saul’s feet, the crowd may beacknowledging his authority in the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58).

Sandals.A woman can remove a man’s sandal in contempt (Deut. 25:5–10),while a sandal can be removed by a kinsman-redeemer to indicategiving up a right or as a transfer of property (Ruth 4:7–8). Asandal can also be removed in mourning (Ezek. 24:17) or be cast overa piece of land to claim ownership (Pss. 60:8; 108:9).

PropheticGestures

Propheticgestures in the OT are mostly concerned with the call to repentanceand approaching judgments upon failure to heed the warning. Jeremiahputs a yoke on his neck (Jer. 27–28; cf. Deut. 28:48), Ezekielcooks with dung (Ezek. 4:12) and sleeps on his left side for 390 daysand then on his right side for 40 days (4:5–6), Isaiah stripsoff his clothing (Isa. 20:2–3; 32:11), and Hosea marries anunfaithful wife (Hos. 1:1–3).

Inthe NT, Jesus cleanses the temple as an act of symbolic judgment(Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15). He also breaks bread and drinkswine (Matt. 26:26; Mark 14:22; Luke 22:19; 24:30, 35; Acts 2:46;20:11; 27:35; 1Cor. 11:24–25) and washes his disciples’feet (John 13:1–13), thereby establishing symbolic Christianpractices.

The Bible does not have a generic term for the idea of color,but it does use various colors for descriptive and symbolic purposes,and it also refers to different coloring processes. Items can bedescribed as “dyed” (Exod. 25:5), “multicolored”(Ezek. 27:24), or “speckled” (Gen. 30:32) to indicatechanges or variety of color.

Certaincolors are commonly used in the Bible (listed below), while othersoccur rarely (e.g., brown and yellow) or not at all (e.g., orange),reflecting the range of colors and dyes available in the ancient NearEast. Colors are most often used for two purposes: to describe luxuryitems indicating wealth and power, and to describe the earthly andheavenly dwelling places of God. Ordinary people and places are notusually described in terms of the colors of their appearance.Exceptions to this include Esau (Gen. 25:25), David (1 Sam.17:42), and the male lover in Song of Songs (5:10–11).

Thefollowing colors have particular significance or symbolic meaning inthe Bible:

White.Used to describe the symptoms of leprosy (Lev. 13:3–4), whitemuch more commonly has a positive association, being the color ofpurity (Isa. 1:18; Rev. 3:4) and glory (Dan. 7:9; Matt. 17:2; Rev.1:14). Angels appear white (Matt. 28:3) or are dressed in white (Mark16:2; Acts 1:10). The multitude of worshipers in heaven will wearwhite robes (Rev. 7:9), having been washed in the blood of the Lamb.

Black.The female lover in the Song of Songs admires the raven black hair ofher beloved (Song 5:11). However, black things usually have lesspositive connotations: storm clouds (1 Kings 18:45), diseasedskin (Job 30:30), and the effects of the plague of locusts (Exod.10:15). Blackness can also be a sign of judgment (Rev. 6:5, 12).

Red.Red is the color of the earth, the color of wine, and the color ofblood. Red dyes could be made from crushed insects, plants, andminerals, giving a wide range of different shades (red, scarlet, andcrimson are common in the Bible). Scarlet yarn and red-dyed animalskins were included in the offerings made for the construction of thetabernacle (Exod. 25:3–5). Red was used to symbolize sin (Isa.1:18) and was also associated with warfare (Nah. 2:3; Rev. 6:4).

Blue.Blue tassels adorned every Hebrew garment as a reminder of God’scommandments (Num. 15:38). In the Persian court the royal colors wereblue, white, and purple (Esther 1:6; 8:15), and blue garments wereworn by the young Assyrian governors (Ezek. 23:6).

Purple.Purple dye was very expensive, so purple cloth was used as a sign ofwealth (Prov. 31:22; Acts 16:14) and a sign of authority: the kingsof Midian wore purple garments (Judg. 8:26); the wedding carriage ofKing Solomon was upholstered in purple (Song 3:10); the Babylonianking Belshazzar offered purple robes as a reward for service (Dan.5:7). Purple robes were put on Jesus before his crucifixion in amockery of his kingship (John 19:2–5).

Blue,purple, and scarlet were each separately associated with wealth andpower, but when used together these three colors were the epitome ofopulence and, as such, were associated with the divine presence. Thetabernacle curtains were woven from blue, purple, and scarlet yarn(Exod. 26:1), as were the high-priestly garments (28:4–15, 33).The same colors were later used in the temple curtains (2 Chron.3:14). Blue, purple, and red cloths were used for covering the Ark ofthe Covenant and its furnishings (Num. 4:6–12). Jeremiahdescribes idols adorned in blue and purple, an attempt to concealtheir worthlessness (10:9).

Gray.Gray hair indicated old age and thus wisdom (Ps. 71:18; Prov. 16:31).

Green.Green is the color of plants and thus was associated with life-givingfood and therefore God’s blessing. Green plants were given byGod for food (Gen. 1:30), so their removal or destruction was adevastating judgment (Exod. 10:15; Ezek. 17:24; Rev. 8:7). Peoplecould be symbolized as green plants when they were fruitful andblessed (Ps. 92:14; Jer. 17:8) or when they were easily destroyed(2 Kings 19:26; Ps. 37:2).

Grief is great sadness or sorrow or the circ*mstances thatproduce such; mourning refers to expressions of grief. Grief andmourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they mayoccur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2Sam.13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Esther 4:3; Isa. 37:1), orrepentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, orboth.

Theexpressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gen. 23:2),wailing (Esther 4:3; Isa. 15:3; Mark 5:38), tearing clothes andwearing sackcloth (Gen. 37:34; 2Sam. 3:31), lying on the ground(2Sam. 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting ondust and ashes (Ezek. 27:30), fasting (2Sam. 3:35; 12:16),singing songs of lament (2Sam. 1:17–27; 3:32–35),pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezra 9:3), cutting the hair(Jer. 7:29), uncovering the head (Lev. 10:6), removing sandals (Ezek.24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7),and employing professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23; Mark5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such asslashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), andthe somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lev. 19:28;Deut. 14:1; cf. 1Kings 18:28).

Thus,grief and mourning were anything but stoic and brief. Grief wasexpressed both physically and vocally, often loudly, with expressionsranging from inarticulate groaning to poetic compositions in song.Although women may have been prominent among professional mourners,expressing grief was not considered unmasculine. Several times Davidwas a leader in expressing grief. That the expression of grief shouldbe brief, relatively dispassionate, and primarily characteristic ofwomen was a Greek development that entered the church through peoplesuch as Augustine, who, for example, felt grieved that he had verybriefly grieved the loss of his mother.

Paul’sadmonition that believers should not grieve as do those who have nohope (1Thess. 4:13) should not be construed as a dictum that itis wrong to grieve. The thought of the resurrection is a comfort in,not a replacement for, grief. Even Jesus wept at the death ofLazarus, knowing full well that he would soon resurrect him (John11:25, 35, 40). Further, saints who have died and gone to heavenlament (Rev. 6:10). Grief is restricted for active-duty priests andonce for Ezekiel, but these are clearly special circ*mstances andillustrate the normalcy of giving expression to grief. Ezekiel was tomoan with a groaning for the dead (often misread as groaningsilently) when his wife died, but he was not to engage in anymourning rites (Ezek. 24:15–27). This illustrated to Judah thecirc*mstances that they would face, without opportunity to mournproperly for their dead. Ezekiel 8:14 indicts the women of Jerusalemfor “mourning for Tammuz,” a pagan ritual involving thecycle of life, death, and rebirth of the Babylonian god Dumuzi.

Songsof lament are common in the OT. David composed a song of lamenthonoring the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2Sam. 1:17–27).After Joab’s unauthorized killing of Abner, David also sang alament for Abner and required Joab to participate in mourning rituals(3:31–37). David also mourned his own sons: the unnamed son ofBathsheba (12:16–18), Amnon (13:30–33), and Absalom(18:33–19:4). In the case of Bathsheba’s son, Davidmourned in advance of the boy’s death, which had beenprophetically proclaimed through Nathan. As the consequences of hissins continued, he progressively became undone in the mourning of hisother sons. Also, funeral songs are used as the form of someprophetic material (Ezek. 19:1–14; 26:17–18; 27:2–9,25–36; cf. Jer. 22:18; Amos 5:16). Not all laments are funeralsongs perse. Compare also the book of Lamentations and thepsalms of lament, also known as complaint psalms.

Expressionsof grief and mourning were called for as part of repentance,combining both fear of punishment and depth of sorrow over sin(2Chron. 34:19; Isa. 15:3; Joel 1:13).

In the OT, “high places” were places of worship,probably so named because hilltops were the preferred sites for suchshrines (though alternative explanations are offered). They do notimply the presence of a temple building, but rather might consistsimply of outdoor altars and could be associated with other religiousobjects such as sacred stones and fertility symbols (1Kings14:23). In the only description we have of the appearance of highplaces, they are disparaged as being “gaudy” (Ezek.16:16).

BeforeIsrael entered the land of Canaan, such shrines were centers of paganfertility religion, the worship of the Baals. The Israelites wereinstructed that, on entering the land, they were to destroy all suchshrines (Num. 33:52; Deut. 33:29). This they failed to do, andalthough not every Israelite high place had Canaanite origins, itappears that many did. Perhaps because of their Canaanite backgroundand the continued presence of some Canaanite worshipers in Israel’smidst, the high places, while notionally becoming places of Yahwehworship for Israel (2Kings 17:32; 18:22; 2Chron. 33:17),were places where this worship was debased by pagan associations andpractices, even to the extent of child sacrifice (Jer. 7:31) andprostitution (if this is to be taken literally in Ezek. 16:16; 43:7).The worship of Yahweh at these shrines became indistinguishable fromBaal worship (2Kings 17:11; 23:5), and some were specificallyerected to foreign gods (1Kings 11:7; Jer. 32:35). Whileperhaps deliberately not called a “high place,” the altarthat Elijah repaired on Mount Carmel became a focal point for callingfor an end to such syncretism (1Kings 18).

Highplaces had priests to officiate at their rituals, though often notfrom the line of Aaron (1Kings 12:31; 2Kings 17:32;23:5).

Thebooks of Samuel do not seem to comment negatively on the worship ofYahweh at the high places. In 1Sam. 9:12–25 is an accountof the prophet Samuel’s sacrifice at a high place, and it is ata high place that Saul encountered a prophetic band and received theSpirit of the Lord following his anointing by Samuel (10:5–13).

Evenbefore the construction of the temple in Jerusalem, Solomon receiveda negative comment for his sacrifice at the high places (1Kings3:3). In Solomon’s time, the high place at Gibeon, where thetabernacle was erected, was considered the most important of the highplaces (1Kings 3:4; 2Chron. 1:3). For the writer(s) of1–2Kings, continued worship at the high places was aconstant source of frustration. It is clear that following theconstruction of the temple in Jerusalem, at least, they consideredthat all sacrificial worship should be centralized in Jerusalem.

Evensome of the best kings disappointingly failed to remove the highplaces (1Kings 15:14; 22:43; 2Kings 12:3; 14:4; 15:4,35). The only kings who managed the removal of the high places wereHezekiah (2Kings 18:4) and Josiah (23:4–20). It hasgenerally been considered that the instruction of Deuteronomyconcerning “the place the Lord your God will choose from amongall your tribes to put his Name” (Deut. 12:5) required thecentralization of all worship, and that this agenda is driving theideology of the writer(s) of 1–2Kings (cf. the use of“Name” at 1Kings 3:2). While the words ofDeuteronomy are capable of being understood in a way that allowed formultiple places where God might set his name at any one time, thetabernacle with its ark symbolizing God’s covenant presencecould be in only one place, and the corruption that characterized thelocal shrines meant that the ruthless abolition of all local shrineswas the only way forward for a faithful king such as Josiah.

Micah1:5 likens Jerusalem (probably with particular reference to thetemple) to a high place because of its unfaithfulness and corruption.

Altars were places of sacrifice and worship constructed ofvarious materials. They could be either temporary or permanent. Somealtars were in the open air; others were set apart in a holy place.They could symbolize either God’s presense and protection orfalse worship that would lead to God’s judgment.

OldTestament

Noahand the patriarchs. Thefirst reference in the Bible is to an altar built by Noah after theflood (Gen. 8:20). This action suggests the sanctuary character ofthe mountain on which the ark landed, so that theologically the ark’sresting place was a (partial) return to Eden. The purpose of theextra clean animals loaded onto the ark was revealed (cf. 7:2–3).They were offered up as “burnt offerings,” symbolizingself-dedication to God at this point of new beginning for the humanrace.

Abrambuilt altars “to the Lord” at places where God appearedand spoke to him (Gen. 12:7) and where he encamped (12:8; 13:3–4,18). No sacrifice is explicitly mentioned in association with thesealtars. Thus, they may have had the character of monuments ormemorials of significant events. In association with Abram’saltars, he is said to have “called on the name of the Lord”(12:8)—that is, to pray. The elaborate cultic proceduresassociated with later Israelite altars (e.g., the mediation ofpriests) were absent in the patriarchal period. Succeedinggenerations followed the same practices: Isaac (26:25) and Jacob(33:20; 34:1, 3, 7). God’s test of Abraham involved the demandthat he sacrifice his son Isaac as a burnt offering. In obedience,Abraham built an altar for this purpose, but through God’sintervention a reprieve was granted, and a ram was substituted (22:9,13). Moses erected an altar after the defeat of Amalek at Rephidim,to commemorate this God-given victory (Exod. 17:15–16).

Mosesand the tabernacle.In the context of making the covenant with Israel at Sinai, God gaveMoses instructions on how to construct an altar (Exod. 20:24–26;cf. Josh. 8:31). It could be “an altar of earth” (ofsun-dried mud-brick construction?) or else made of loose naturalstones. The Israelites were expressly forbidden to use hewn stones,perhaps for fear of an idolatrous image being carved (making thisprohibition an application of Exod. 20:4; cf. Deut. 27:5–6).Even if the altar was large, it was not to be supplied with steps forthe priest to ascend, lest his nakedness be shown to God. Therequirement that priests wear undergarments reflects the same concern(Exod. 28:42–43). An altar made of twelve stones, the numberrepresenting the number of the tribes of Israel, was built by Mosesfor the covenant-making ceremony (Exod. 24:4), in which half theblood of the sacrifice was sprinkled on the altar (representing God?)and the other half on the people, the action symbolizing the covenantbond created (24:6–8).

Forthe tabernacle, a portable “altar of burnt offering” wasmade (Exod. 27:1–8; 38:1–7). It had wooden framessheathed in bronze and featured a horn at each corner. There was aledge around the altar halfway up its sides, from which was hungbronze grating, and it had four bronze rings into which poles wereslipped for transport. As part of the cultic ritual, blood wassmeared on the horns (29:12). This altar stood in the open air in thecourtyard of the tabernacle, near the entrance to the tabernacle.Included among the tabernacle furnishings was a smaller “altarof incense,” with molding around the top rim (30:1–10;37:25–28). This altar was, however, overlaid with gold, for itstood closer to God’s ritual presence, inside the tabernacle,“in front of the curtain that shields the Ark of the Covenantlaw,” the curtain that separated the most holy place from theholy place. The high priest placed fragrant incense on this altarevery morning and evening. The fact that this was a daily procedureand the description of the positioning of the tabernacle furnishingsin Exod. 40:26–28 (mentioning the altar of incense afterspeaking about the lampstand) might be taken as implying that theincense altar was in the holy place, but 1 Kings 6:22 and Heb.9:4 suggest that it was actually in the most holy place, near theark.

God,through Moses, instructed the people that on entering the PromisedLand they were to destroy all Canaanite altars along with the otherparaphernalia of their pagan worship (Deut. 7:5; 12:3). Bronze Agealtars discovered at Megiddo include horned limestone incense altarsand a large circular altar mounted by a flight of steps. In Josh. 22the crisis caused by the building of “an imposing altar”by the Transjordanian tribes was averted when these tribes explainedto the rest of the Israelites that it was intended as a replica ofthe altar outside the tabernacle and not for the offering ofsacrifices. The worship of all Israel at the one sanctuary bothexpressed and protected the religious unity and purity of the nationat this vital early stage of occupation of the land. In laternarratives, however, Gideon (Judg. 6), Samuel (1 Sam. 7:17),Saul (1 Sam. 14:35), and David (2 Sam. 24) are said tobuild altars for sacrifice and to have done so with impunity, and infact with the apparent approval of the biblical author. Theestablished custom of seeking sanctuary from threat of death in thenation’s shrine is reflected in 1 Kings 1:50–53;2:28–35, where Adonijah and Joab are described as “clingingto the horns of the altar.”

Solomon’stemple and rival worship centers.In the temple built by Solomon, the altar of incense that belonged tothe “inner sanctuary” was overlaid with gold (1 Kings6:20, 22). Solomon’s prayer at the dedication of the temple wasmade before the bronze altar in the courtyard (1 Kings 8:22,54). The altar for sacrifices was much larger than the one that hadbeen in the tabernacle (1 Chron. 4:1 gives its dimensions).

Althoughmany of the psalms may originally have been used in worship in thefirst temple, there are surprisingly few references to the altar inthe Psalter (only Pss. 26:6; 43:4; 51:19; 84:3; 118:27). They expressthe psalmist’s devotion to God and the temple as the placewhere God’s presence is enjoyed as the highest blessing.

Afterthe division of the kingdom, Jeroboam offered sacrifices at the rivalaltar that he set up in Bethel (1 Kings 12:32–33). Anunnamed “man of God” (= prophet) predicted Josiah’sdesecration of this altar, which lay many years in the future(1 Kings 13:1–5). Amos and Hosea, who prophesied in thenorthern kingdom of the eighth century BC, condemned this and theother altars in that kingdom (e.g., Amos 3:14; Hos. 8:11–13).Ahab set up an altar to Baal in Samaria (1 Kings 16:32), and thesuppression of Yahwism by Jezebel included the throwing down of theLord’s altars in Israel (19:10, 14). The competition on MountCarmel between Elijah and the prophets of Baal involved rival altars(1 Kings 18), and Elijah’s twelve-stone altar recalls thatof Exod. 24, for he was calling the nation back to the exclusivemonotheism preached by Moses (1 Kings 18:30–32).

Withregard to the southern kingdom, the spiritual declension in the timeof Ahaz manifested itself in this king making an altar modeled on theAssyrian prototype that he had seen on a visit to Damascus (2 Kings16:10–14). He shifted the Lord’s altar from in front ofthe temple, where it had previously stood. Godly Hezekiah’sreligious reform included the removal of the altars at the highplaces that up to that time had been centers of deviant worship(2 Kings 18:4, 22). The apostasy of King Manasseh showed itselfin his rebuilding the high places that Hezekiah his father haddestroyed and in erecting altars to Baal (2 Kings 21), thusrepeating the sin of Ahab (cf. 1 Kings 16:32). Josiah’sreform included the destruction of all altars outside Jerusalem(2 Kings 23) and the centralizing of worship in the Jerusalemtemple.

InEzekiel’s vision of the new temple of the future, thesacrificial altar is its centerpiece (Ezek. 43:13–17). Thealtar was to be a large structure, with three-stepped stages and ahorn on each corner, and it was to be fitted with steps on itseastern side for the use of the priests.

Thesecond temple.The Israelites’ return from Babylonian exile was with theexpress aim of rebuilding the temple. The first thing that thepriests did was to build “the altar on its foundation”(i.e., its original base; Ezra 3:2–3). The returnees placed thealtar on the precise spot that it had occupied before the Babyloniansdestroyed it along with the temple. They took such care because theywanted to ensure that God would accept their sacrifices and so grantthem protection. At the very end of the OT period, the prophetMalachi condemned the insincerity of Israel’s worship that wasmanifested in substandard sacrifices being offered on God’saltar (Mal. 1:7, 10; 2:13).

NewTestament

Inthe NT, the altar is mentioned in a number of Jesus’ sayings(e.g., Matt. 5:23–24; 23:18–20). In the theology of thebook of Hebrews, which teaches about the priesthood of Jesus Christ(in the order of Melchizedek), the role of the priest is defined asone who “serve[s] at the altar” (7:13), and Christ’saltar (and that of Christ’s followers) is the cross on which heoffered himself as a sacrifice for sin (13:10). Another argument ofHebrews is that since on the most important day in the Jewish ritualcalendar (the Day of Atonement), the flesh of the sacrifice was noteaten (see Lev. 16:27), the eating of Jewish ceremonial foods is notrequired, nor is it of any spiritual value. The altar in the heavenlysanctuary is mentioned a number of times in the book of Revelation(6:9; 8:3, 5; 9:13; 11:1; 14:18; 16:7). It is most likely the altarof incense and is related to the prayers of God’s persecutedpeople, which are answered by the judgments of God upon the people ofthe earth.

An instance when the intended meaning of an expression is theopposite of its ostensible meaning. Irony is often accompanied bysarcasm, as when Amos beckons Israel to go to their places of worshipso that they may sin (Amos 4:4–5). Elijah sarcastically tauntsthe worshipers of Baal, “Shout louder! ... Surelyhe [Baal] is a god! Perhaps he is deep in thought, or busy, ortraveling. Maybe he is sleeping and must be awakened” (1Kings18:27–29). Job utilizes irony when he tells his friends,“Doubtless you are the only people who matter, and wisdom willdie with you!” (Job 12:2), and he receives an ironic expressionwhen he is told by God, “Surely you know, for you were alreadyborn!” (38:21). Paul writes to the Corinthians, “We arefools for Christ, but you are so wise in Christ! We are weak, but youare strong! You are honored, we are dishonored!” (1Cor.4:10). A double irony may be seen in the expression “King ofthe Jews,” used by Roman soldiers to ridicule Jesus (Matt.27:29) even while its ostensible meaning applies (Matt. 27:11). Innarrative, irony may be evident to the reader without it beingevident to the characters. For example, Cain’s question to God,“Am I my brother’s keeper?” (Gen. 4:9) begs anegative response from Cain’s perspective. Yet in view of otherbiblical passages involving the responsibilities of kin and God’sexpectations regarding the community of his people, the answer toCain’s question is resoundingly affirmative.

Inaddition to single utterances, irony can also involve a set ofcirc*mstances that share a relationship with one another that is theopposite of what is expected. Thinking that King Xerxes intends tohonor him, Haman unwittingly advises the king to honor Mordecai eventhough he intended to request permission to kill Mordecai (Esther5:9–13). After Haman suffers the humiliation of honoringMordecai in the manner he fashioned for himself, Haman is executed onthe very device he has erected to execute Mordecai (7:9–10). Inthe story of Joseph, the violent reaction by Joseph’s brothersto his dreams serves to bring about the circ*mstances that the dreamsforetold (Gen. 37:19; 42:9). The ministry of Jesus may be viewed asinherently ironic (Phil. 2:6–11), as well as many of histeachings—for example, the last will be first (Matt. 20:16) andthe least is the greatest (Luke 9:46–48). Those who orchestrateJesus’ execution do so in order to stop his ministry, yet ineffect they fulfill his messianic goal (Matt. 20:25–28;26:1–4).

Grief is great sadness or sorrow or the circ*mstances thatproduce such; mourning refers to expressions of grief. Grief andmourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they mayoccur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2Sam.13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Esther 4:3; Isa. 37:1), orrepentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, orboth.

Theexpressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gen. 23:2),wailing (Esther 4:3; Isa. 15:3; Mark 5:38), tearing clothes andwearing sackcloth (Gen. 37:34; 2Sam. 3:31), lying on the ground(2Sam. 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting ondust and ashes (Ezek. 27:30), fasting (2Sam. 3:35; 12:16),singing songs of lament (2Sam. 1:17–27; 3:32–35),pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezra 9:3), cutting the hair(Jer. 7:29), uncovering the head (Lev. 10:6), removing sandals (Ezek.24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7),and employing professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23; Mark5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such asslashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), andthe somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lev. 19:28;Deut. 14:1; cf. 1Kings 18:28).

Thus,grief and mourning were anything but stoic and brief. Grief wasexpressed both physically and vocally, often loudly, with expressionsranging from inarticulate groaning to poetic compositions in song.Although women may have been prominent among professional mourners,expressing grief was not considered unmasculine. Several times Davidwas a leader in expressing grief. That the expression of grief shouldbe brief, relatively dispassionate, and primarily characteristic ofwomen was a Greek development that entered the church through peoplesuch as Augustine, who, for example, felt grieved that he had verybriefly grieved the loss of his mother.

Paul’sadmonition that believers should not grieve as do those who have nohope (1Thess. 4:13) should not be construed as a dictum that itis wrong to grieve. The thought of the resurrection is a comfort in,not a replacement for, grief. Even Jesus wept at the death ofLazarus, knowing full well that he would soon resurrect him (John11:25, 35, 40). Further, saints who have died and gone to heavenlament (Rev. 6:10). Grief is restricted for active-duty priests andonce for Ezekiel, but these are clearly special circ*mstances andillustrate the normalcy of giving expression to grief. Ezekiel was tomoan with a groaning for the dead (often misread as groaningsilently) when his wife died, but he was not to engage in anymourning rites (Ezek. 24:15–27). This illustrated to Judah thecirc*mstances that they would face, without opportunity to mournproperly for their dead. Ezekiel 8:14 indicts the women of Jerusalemfor “mourning for Tammuz,” a pagan ritual involving thecycle of life, death, and rebirth of the Babylonian god Dumuzi.

Songsof lament are common in the OT. David composed a song of lamenthonoring the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2Sam. 1:17–27).After Joab’s unauthorized killing of Abner, David also sang alament for Abner and required Joab to participate in mourning rituals(3:31–37). David also mourned his own sons: the unnamed son ofBathsheba (12:16–18), Amnon (13:30–33), and Absalom(18:33–19:4). In the case of Bathsheba’s son, Davidmourned in advance of the boy’s death, which had beenprophetically proclaimed through Nathan. As the consequences of hissins continued, he progressively became undone in the mourning of hisother sons. Also, funeral songs are used as the form of someprophetic material (Ezek. 19:1–14; 26:17–18; 27:2–9,25–36; cf. Jer. 22:18; Amos 5:16). Not all laments are funeralsongs perse. Compare also the book of Lamentations and thepsalms of lament, also known as complaint psalms.

Expressionsof grief and mourning were called for as part of repentance,combining both fear of punishment and depth of sorrow over sin(2Chron. 34:19; Isa. 15:3; Joel 1:13).

A region generally identified with the landmass betweenancient Syria and Egypt, including parts of the Sinai Peninsula,Palestine from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean, and southernPhoenicia (modern Lebanon). Although there is some discussion aboutthe origin of the name “Canaan” and its meaning, the nameapparently arises from the primary inhabitants of the region prior toJoshua’s incursion into the land, since it is primarily used inconnection with the phrase “the land of,” indicating thatthe descendants of Canaan possess it. Because the identity of theland of Canaan was linked as much to its inhabitants as it was to anysort of fixed borders, the boundaries are identified in various waysthroughout the biblical text. Such descriptions vary from a ratherlimited area of influence (as suggested by Num. 13:29) to a largerland spanning an area from the Euphrates to the Nile (Gen. 15:18;Exod. 23:23). Because of its strategic position as a buffer betweenEgypt and Mesopotamia and between Arabia and the sea, it served as aprimary trading outpost and the location of numerous importanthistorical events both prior to and after Israel’s appearancein the land.

Inthe Bible, the geographical reference “the land of Canaan”finds primary expression, not surprisingly, in Genesis throughJudges. The promise to Abraham that his descendants would inherit theland of the Canaanites (Gen. 15:18–21) is the theological focalpoint of the uses of the term “Canaan” throughout thesebiblical books. Once that inheritance was achieved and Israel becamea viable state, the term’s use seems to serve the doublepurpose of being both a geographical marker and a reminder of thenature of its former predominant inhabitants. The prophets drew uponthe term to remind Israel of the land’s former status, both inits positive (Isa. 19:18) and negative (Isa. 23:11; Zeph. 2:5)connotations. The term is transliterated twice in the NT in therecounting of OT history (Acts 7:11; 13:19). One further connectionbetween Canaan and the perspectives communicated concerning it in theOT is the apparent association of the land with corrupt tradepractices. That is, while some believe that the word “Canaan”always meant “merchant” or some similar word, its use inScripture suggests that the tradesmen of Canaan were of suchdisrepute in the recollection of ancient Israel that the term becamea synonym for “unjust trader” (Job 41:6; Ezek. 16:29;17:4; Zeph. 1:11; Zech. 14:21).

History

Theproximity of Canaan to Egypt meant that from its earliest periods itfound itself beholden to the pharaohs of Egypt. The EgyptianExecration texts from the Old Kingdom era tell of Egypt’sinfluence over Canaan in the early second millennium. After theexpulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, the pharaohs of the New Kingdomasserted their control over the land. Most famous among these recordsis Thutmose III’s account of his defeat of Megiddo throughthe implementation of both cunning and skill. This same pharaoh wouldestablish a system of dividing Canaan and its inhabitants fortaxation and administration that would be so successful that Solomonwould reimplement the same system during his reign (1 Kings4:7–19). Even in the weaker days of Egypt following the NewKingdom, pharaohs such as Necho and Shishak and their successors thePtolemies would often seek to revisit the days of glory in campaignsinto Canaan.

Inaddition to Egypt, other outside forces found their way into Canaanand exerted influence on its development. The earliest settlers seemto have come from Mesopotamia, and Semitic influence is witnessed asearly as 3000 BC. In the period between Egypt’s control ofCanaan during the Old Kingdom and its later reassertion afterexpelling the Hyksos, Canaan witnessed a massive influx of Amoritesfrom the north and also incursions by the Hittites and the Hurrians.As Egypt’s power waned toward the end of the New Kingdom, thePhilistines came in from the sea and the Israelites from across theJordan. All these societies were absorbed into the Canaanite cultureor were themselves modified by the Canaanites. Israelite success inremoving mention of the Canaanites as an identifiable entity wouldnot be firmly established until late in the eighth century underHezekiah.

Thestory of Israel’s predominance in the area of Canaan begins, ofcourse, with the infiltration into the land under Joshua and persistsuntil the fall of the temple in AD 70 at the hands of the Romans.During that period, Canaan endured as a place of importance as astaging ground for controlling both Mesopotamia and Egypt andtherefore witnessed campaigns by most of the great leaders ofAssyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Of course, with eachcampaign came alterations in both the political and the culturallandscape of the land and reinforcement of the view that the area wasthe center of the world. Indeed, it is in Canaan, in the JezreelValley, that Scripture turns its focus for the final battle betweenGod and the forces of Satan at Armageddon.

Geographyand Climate

Geography.Though small in scope, the region of Canaan encompassed asurprisingly wide variety of environments. Within its topography onecould find perilous deserts, snow-capped mountains, thick forests,lush plains, coastal beaches, rugged hills, deep valleys, andseparate water sources full of both life and minerals. The Shephelah,or coastal plain, lacks any natural harbor areas that would have ledto the early exploitation of the Mediterranean in the south that isso well known in the northern areas of Phoenicia. It does, however,provide wide-open, fertile areas fed by the rain runoff from thecentral hill country, which allowed it to be a useful source offarming and civilization from a very early period.

Thecentral hill country is essentially a ridge that runs parallel to thecoast and undulates in elevation from the mountainous north to therugged but less elevated regions of the south. This ridge served as anatural barrier against travel from west to east, so it is notsurprising that important military towns such as Hazor cropped up inplaces where valleys in this ridge allowed travelers to move from thecoast to the inland regions as necessary to reach Mesopotamia fromEgypt. One such valley of significance through the history of theland of Canaan is the Esdraelon or Jezreel Valley. It provides a wideswath of land that moves from Akko in the west (  justnorth of the Carmel Range) to the Sea of Galilee in the east, withaccess points in the north and south. Within this valley weresettlements such as Megiddo and Hazor in earlier times, and Nazarethand Tiberias in later times.

Alongthe eastern edge of the central hill country is the Jordan RiftValley. The elevation drops dramatically from cities in the hillcountry, such as Jerusalem at about 2,500 feet above sea level, tocities in the valley, such as Jericho at about 1,000 feet below sealevel, within the span of about fifteen miles. The valley itself ispart of a much larger rift that starts in southeast Turkey andcontinues all the way to Mozambique in Africa. Waters from snowyMount Hermon and a couple of natural springs feed into the Sea ofGalilee and then flow into the Jordan River, which snakes its waydown into the Dead Sea. The lands around the Jordan River were oncevery fertile in the north and probably included abundant forests andwildlife. Toward the south of the Jordan River, one approaches thewilderness surrounding the Dead Sea, a region well known for itsmineral contents.

Thesouthernmost section of Canaan, known as the Negev, is an unforgivingregion with mountains, deserts, and interspersed oases throughout. Itopens up into the Arabian Desert to the east and the Sinai Peninsulato the southwest. Its primary cities of importance in biblical timeswere Beersheba and Raphia. As the gateway from Egypt to Canaan, theNegev played a significant role in biblical history.

Climate.The climate of Canaan played a significant role in its religion andhistory. It is generally recognized that climate change played arather momentous role in population movements by nomads, indestabilization of powerful governments, and in the capability, orlack thereof, of nations to participate in the trade that was at theheart of Canaan’s growth, spread of influence, and success.Within Canaan itself, because the natural water sources were on thewrong side of the central hill country, most of its water came fromrainfall. It is not surprising, therefore, that many of thediscussions that take place in both Canaanite and Israelite religiousexpressions concerning the power of their gods found utterance interms of a god’s ability to grant rain (see 1 Kings17–18). The rainy season began in October and typicallycontinued through April. The other months of the year witnessedlittle or no rainfall. Although in a temperate zone within which onemight expect high temperatures, the coastal plains were keptrelatively cool by winds coming in off the sea. The coastal mountainareas, such as Carmel, were the most likely to receive rainfall, sowhen they were without it, all the land suffered (Amos 1:2).

Cultureand Politics

Thehistory of Canaan begins with an archaeological record that travelsback into the first signs of human settlement anywhere in the world.Such early attestation exists within the confines of Palestine itselfat Jericho and Megiddo, both sites of natural springs that would haveattracted settlers. The pre-Israelite civilizations of Canaan arewell attested during the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BC). Theirculture as represented in the art and architecture of the landdemonstrates a developed people who were metropolitan in taste andgifted in style. Furthermore, because of the placement of the landbetween Egypt and Mesopotamia and the numerous incursions by outsideforces throughout its history, Canaan reveals a people with a hightolerance for change and a willingness to absorb other viewpointsinto their perspectives and practice. Archaeological finds reveal amixture of Egyptian, Sumerian, Amorite, Hittite, and Akkadianinfluences in their literature, material wealth, and religion.

Thoughunified in terms of a worldview and religious expression, the peopleof Canaan were politically committed to independent expressions oftheir power and influence. The greater cities seem to have served ashubs around which smaller communities and cities organized andremained separate from each other. The Amarna letters of thefourteenth century BC reveal leaders who did not trust each other andwho sought the Egyptian pharaoh’s favor as they vied forposition and strength. As one would expect, different city-statesheld more sway in different eras. Ebla flourished in the period of2500–2000 BC and then again around 1800 BC. Likewise, Byblosflourished in the period of 2500–1300 BC. It is in the MiddleBronze Age (2200–1550 BC) that cities more directly involvedwith the biblical narrative started to flourish. For instance,Jerusalem, Jericho, Hazor, and Megiddo reached their height of powerand influence around 1700–1500 BC, and each of these ismentioned in various texts of the time that give us some insight intoCanaan’s role in the greater political history. It isUgarit/Ras Shamra, which flourished in 1400–1200 BC, however,that has granted us the greatest amount of textual knowledge andinformation about the religion and literature of Canaan.

Religion

Theexcavations of Ras Shamra (beginning in 1929), and the accompanyingdiscovery of its archive of clay tablets, granted modern scholars aperspective into Canaanite religion that had been hinted at in thebiblical text but previously had remained somewhat of a mystery. Thetablets themselves date between 1400 and 1200 BC. They reveal ahighly developed religion with identifiable, well-defined deities.These deities represent religious practice and thought in the regionthat go back to at least 2000 BC, and the Mesopotamian religions theyare dependent on go back well beyond that.

Canaanitedeities.Theprimary gods identified in the text include El, Baal, Asherah (atUgarit, Athirat), Anath (at Ugarit, Anat), and Ashtoreth (at Ugarit,Astarte). El was the supreme Canaanite deity, though in popular usethe people of Canaan seem to have been more interested in Baal.

Therelationship between the Canaanite use of the name “El”for their supreme god and Israel’s use of the same in referenceto its own God (Gen. 33:20; Job 8:3; Pss. 18:31, 33, 48; 68:21) issomething that biblical authors used at various points in theirwritings (Ps. 81:9–10; Nah. 1:2), never in the sense ofassociating the two as one and the same, but solely for the purposeof distinguishing their God, Yahweh, from any associations with thedescriptions and nature of the Canaanite El (Exod. 34:14).Practically speaking, the coincidence probably resulted from the factthat the Hebrew word ’el had a dual intent in its common usage,similar to the way a modern English speaker will sometimes use “god”as either a common or a proper noun.

Like“El,” the term “Baal” had a dual function inits use. Because the word means “master” or “lord,”the people of Canaan could apply “Baal” to either thesingular deity of the greater pantheon or to individual gods of amore local variety. Local manifestations included Baal-Peor,Baal-Hermon, Baal-Zebul, and Baal-Meon. The OT acknowledges themultiplicity of Baals in some places (Judg. 2:11; 3:7; 1 Sam.7:4) but also seems to allude to a singular ultimate Baal (1 Kings18; 2 Kings 21:3), called “Baal-Shamen” or“Baal-Hadad” elsewhere. The fact that Baal was recognizedin the Ugaritic texts as the god of the thunderbolt adds aninteresting insight to the struggle on Mount Carmel, in which onewould suppose that had he been real, the one thing he should havebeen able to do was bring fire down from the sky; but he could not(1 Kings 18). Recognition that the term “Baal” couldrefer to a number of gods or to one ultimate god may also help oneunderstand the syncretism that took place in Israel between Yahwehand Baal addressed by the prophet Hosea (Hos. 2:16). To the commonperson who recognized the multiplicity of the term “Baal”and yet also heard of his supremacy, the assignment of the name toYahweh and the resulting combining that would occur would seem anatural progression, though still sinful in the eyes of God.

Thesynthesis of Baal and Yahweh is demonstrated in Scripture as being atemptation from national Israel’s earliest encounters withBaalism. The events at Peor (Num. 25) demonstrate a propensity towardthis type of activity, but the confusion between Yahweh and Baalbecame strongest once Israel entered into the land. Gideon had asecond name, “Jerub-Baal” (Judg. 6:32), and the peoplethemselves worshiped Baal-Berith (“Baal of the covenant”)as an indication that they believed their covenant to be with Baal,not Yahweh. Saul, Jonathan, and David all had sons named for Baal:Esh-Baal, Merib-Baal, and Beeliada respectively. Jeroboam I madethe connection even more explicit in his setting of shrines at Danand Bethel with the golden calves that were common icons for Baal inthe era, but that he apparently viewed as being appropriaterepresentations of Yahweh. By the time of the prophets, suchconfusion evidently was entrenched into the very heart of both Israeland Judah; however, Yahweh was able to utilize the false assessmentsof his character to clarify his true character and ultimately bringIsrael back to him.

Asherahwas the wife of El in Ugaritic mythology, but apparently because ofBaal’s accessibility and ubiquitous nature, she was ultimatelygiven to Baal as a consort among Canaanites in the south. Apparently,her worship was also linked to trees, and the mentioning of “Asherahpoles” (Exod. 34:13; Deut. 7:5; Judg. 6:25) in Scripturesuggests that such a linkage had been stylized into representativetrees at sacred locations. Asherah had prophets (1 Kings 18:19)and specific instruments of worship in Israel (2 Kings 23:4) andbecame so ensconced in practice and thought that her form often wasreplicated in the form of items known as Asherim. The previouslymentioned synthesis between Baal and Yahweh seems also to have foundexpression regarding Asherah within Israel. At Kuntillet Ajrud afamous graffito reads “Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah.”This example of the people granting a consort to Yahweh is yetanother instance where the biblical revelation is so distinct amongsurrounding cultures because of the absence of such imagery regardingGod.

Anathwas understood as both Baal’s sister and his lover in Canaanitemythology. Given her apparent replacement in the thought of thesouthern Canaanite tribes by Asherah, it is not surprising that theonly place we find Anath mentioned is in appellations, such as “BethAnath” (lit., “the house of Anath” [Josh. 19:38;Judg. 1:33]). She also seems to have played a role in the tone ofBaal worship in that she functioned as a goddess of both warfare andsexuality. Her portrayal in Ugaritic texts and in inscriptions fromEgypt suggests a lasciviousness that has become the definingcharacteristic of Canaanite worship and also seems to be at thecenter of the methodology implemented by Hosea to reach Israel, whichhad become ensnarled in a similar outlook regarding Yahweh (Hos.1–3).

Thedescriptions of Ashtoreth at Ugarit portray her in much the samelight as Anath. Some cultures such as Egypt and later Syria seem tohave even melded them together into one being. Whether this combiningwas a part of the Israelite conceptions is difficult to determine,although such a combination may explain why only Ashtoreth ismentioned in the biblical text as an individual deity and not Anath.In any case, Ashtoreth apparently was a primary figure in thecorruption of worship during the reign of Solomon (1 Kings 11:5,33; 2 Kings 23:13).

Summary.By the time the Israelites entered the land, they found a religionthat was already well established and accustomed to absorbing variousviewpoints into its expression and practice. Additionally, they founda religion that catered to the more base and animalistic tendenciesto which all humanity is drawn since the fall. The commonality ofsuch practices among almost all ancient cultures serves as a potentreminder of the distinctiveness and power of the biblical worldview.The narratives, poems, and prophetic oracles of the OT demonstrate aknowledge of these beliefs and an acknowledgment of their place inthe lives of everyday Israelites, but they never demonstrate asubmission to them in their portrayal of the true God and hisexpectations of his people.

The land of Israel is strategically located on a land bridgebetween significant geopolitical powers. About the size of NewJersey, it is geographically diverse, ranging from fertile mountainsin northern Galilee to the arid Negev steppe. It was indeed the“testing ground of faith” in which God planted hispeople.

The“Land Between”

TheMediterranean Sea to the west and the great Arabian Desert to theeast confined the flow of military and commercial traffic to thisland bridge. Throughout most of Israel’s history, Egypt and thesuccession of political entities in Mesopotamia were intent onexpanding their empires; Israel was in between. To a lesser extent,this also involved invaders coming from or through Anatolia (modernTurkey).

Thesea and the desert also affect the weather patterns as Israel isdependent on rainfall in the winter months and dew in the summer forits continued agricultural fertility. The promises regarding the“early and latter rains” (autumn and spring) indicateblessing (Deut. 11:14; Jer. 5:24; Joel 2:23). The prospects ofdrought and famine hover over the land. These vulnerabilities toenemy attack and potential lack of rainfall figure prominently inGod’s challenge to faithful obedience (Deut. 11:10–17;28:25).

GeographicalRegions

Thereare four north-south longitudinal zones that help to define thegeography of Israel. From west to east, they are the coastal plain,the hill country, the Jordan Rift Valley, and Trans-jordan. South ofthese zones lies the Negev, a marginal region between Israel properand Sinai.

Coastalplain.The coastal plain extends almost the entire length of Israel, withthe exception of Mount Carmel’s promontory, jutting out intothe Mediterranean Sea. Because of the straight coastline, there areno natural good harbors as there are farther north in Lebanon. Thisregion characteristically was controlled by more cosmopolitan andgenerally hostile non-Israelites, the most notable being thePhilistines in the south. As a result of these factors, theIsraelites generally were not a seafaring people, and in fact theyseemed to view the sea as a place of chaos and danger (e.g., Pss.42:7; 74:13–14; Jon. 2:2–7).

Muchof the coastal plain was swampy in antiquity due to calcifiedsandstone ridges along the coastline that prevented runoff from thehills from flowing unimpeded into the sea. In addition, sand dunesalong the coast were obstacles to travel. Because this region wasrelatively flat and easily traversed along the eastern edge, theInternational Coastal Highway skirted the swamps and dunes andcarried the major traffic through the land. Erosion from the hillcountry to the east brought excellent soil to the plain. Once theswamps were drained in the twentieth century, the plains becamefertile farming areas.

Thecoastal plain has significant subdivisions. To the north of MountCarmel, the Plain of Akko includes a crescent-shaped area around thecity of Akko and extends to Rosh HaNikra, a promontory at theboundary with Lebanon. Immediately south of Mount Carmel is the smallPlain of Dor, generally under the control of foreigners and notsignificant in the biblical text. The Crocodile River separates thePlain of Dor from the Sharon Plain. In the early first century AD,Herod the Great built Caesarea Maritima on the site of Strato’sTower along the coast of the Sharon Plain and constructed an immenseartificial harbor (Josephus, Ant. 15.331–41). It was Herod’sintent for Caesarea to serve as the entry point for Roman cultureinto what he considered to be the backwaters of Palestine. In God’splan, however, the process was reversed: Caesarea became a majorChristian center, and the gospel went out through the entire RomanEmpire.

TheYarqon River, with its source at Aphek, separates the Sharon and thePhilistine plains. Because this created a bottleneck for theInternational Coastal Highway, whoever controlled Aphek had amilitary and commercial advantage. It is significant that thePhilistines were at Aphek when the Israelites took the ark of thecovenant to battle (1Sam. 4). The Philistine Plain extendsfifty miles south to Besor Wadi (dry riverbed) in the western Negev(see below). Its width ranges from about ten miles in the north totwenty-five miles in the south. The five significant Philistinecities were Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron.

Hillcountry.A mountainous spine runs from the north to the south, with severalaberrations due to seismic activity in the distant geologic past. Thehill countries of Judah, Benjamin, Ephraim, and Manasseh are in thesouthern two-thirds of the country. Because the terrain is rugged,with steep V-shaped valleys, these regions are somewhat more isolatedand protected, especially in Judah and Ephraim. Travel in theinterior is along the north-south ridge, often called the “wayof the patriarchs” because Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob journeyedthis route, stopping at Shechem, Bethel, Salem (Jerusalem), Hebron,and finally Beersheba at the southern end of the mountain range.Agriculture in the hill country is excellent when there is sufficientrainfall. The hard limestone bedrock means that springs are bountifuland the eroded terra rossa soil is productive. The triad of cropsthat appears in the Bible includes grain (“bread”), newwine, and oil (Deut. 11:14; Joel 1:10), noted in the order in whichthey are harvested.

Westof the Judean hill country are lower, rolling foothills known as theShephelah. Cut through by five significant east-west valleys, thisregion was a buffer zone between the people living in the hillcountry and the Philistines or other foreign forces passing throughon the International Coastal Highway. When Israel was particularlyvulnerable, these valleys served as invasion routes into theheartland of Judah. The most famous of these, the Elah Valley, wasthe site of the face-off between David and the Philistine warriorGoliath (1Sam.17).

Onthe eastern side of the hill country, especially in the tribal areasof Judah and Benjamin, lies the wilderness. Because most of theprecipitation falls on the western slopes of the mountain range,rainfall for the regions right around the Dead Sea (in the “rainshadow”) is less than four inches per year. Sparsely inhabited,the wilderness was occasionally a place of refuge, as when David wasfleeing from Saul (1Sam. 23–26). Generally, it was viewedas a place to pass through. When the Israelites conquered the land,they traversed the wilderness to get to the central Benjamin Plateau(Josh. 10:9–10). David fled through the wilderness when Absalomtook over the kingdom (2Sam. 15–16). When Jesus traveledfrom Jericho (below sea level) to Jerusalem, he climbed through thewilderness to an elevation of about twenty-five hundred feet abovesea level. Shepherds grazed their flocks in this area during thewinter wet months and then migrated farther north and west as the dryseason advanced. Some chose to withdraw into the wilderness, mostnotably the Qumran community along the northwestern shore of the DeadSea and the later monastic communities.

Themajor city in the rugged hill country of Ephraim was Shiloh, awell-protected location for the tabernacle and the ark of thecovenant early in Israel’s history (Judg. 18:31; 1Sam.1–4). In fact, the decision to take the ark out to battleagainst the Philistines at Aphek was catastrophic. The tribalterritory of Manasseh, north of Ephraim, was more open to foreigninfluence. The major cities were Shechem, lying between Mount Gerizimand Mount Ebal, locations for the renewal of the covenant (Josh.8:30–35; 24:1), and Samaria, eventually the capital of thenorthern kingdom. When Omri moved the capital west to Samaria(1Kings 16:24), it was a bid for more connection withcosmopolitan coastal communities and particularly with the nation ofPhoenicia to the northwest. Omri’s son Ahab married thePhoenician princess Jezebel, cementing the alliance and bringing Baalworship to Israel with even greater force.

MountCarmel, to the northwest of Samaria, served as the effective boundarybetween Israel and the expanding power of the Phoenicians. It was theperfect stage for the confrontation between Elijah and the prophetsof Baal and Asherah (1Kings 18). Due to its elevation (overseventeen hundred feet at its highest point), it normally receivesabout thirty-two inches of rain per year. At Elijah’s word,however, the rain had ceased for more than three years (1Kings17:1; James 5:17), and the glory of Carmel had withered (cf. Isa.33:9; Amos 1:2; Nah. 1:4). This was a direct challenge to thesupposed powers of Baal, the god of storm and rain. The contestapparently took place near the heights of the promontory overlookingthe Mediterranean Sea (1Kings 18:42–43). There are,however, three sections in the entire twenty-four-mile range, eachseparated from the next by a chalk pass, providing access through themountain range. At the southeastern end of Mount Carmel lies theDothan Valley, location of one of the routes connecting theInternational Coastal Highway with the major Transjordanian highway(see Gen. 37; 2Kings 6:8–23).

TheDothan Valley rests between Mount Carmel and Mount Gilboa to theeast. These two mountains, along with the Jezreel and Harod Valleyson their northern flanks, create a natural barrier between thecentral hill country and Galilee. Because of the strategic importanceof this region, the Israelites fought early defensive battles againstthe forces of Jabin king of Hazor (Judg. 4) and against theMidianites camped in the Jezreel Valley (Judg. 7). Later, thePhilistines swept through this valley, dividing the southern tribesfrom those in the north. Saul and his sons lost their lives on MountGilboa in this confrontation (1Sam. 31). The night before thebattle, Saul was so troubled by God’s silence that he venturedbehind enemy lines on Mount Moreh (directly north of Mount Gilboa) tothe town of Endor and requested a medium to summon the prophet Samuel(1Sam. 28). The city of Megiddo, situated on the edge of theJezreel Valley at the base of Mount Carmel, guarded the mostimportant pass through the mountain and was the site of numerousbattles. It may be the basis for the name “Armageddon,”“Har Megiddo” in Hebrew (Rev. 16).

Northof the Jezreel and Harod Valleys, Galilee can be divided into lowerand upper Galilee. The latter is called “upper” becauseit is both farther north and significantly higher in elevation. UpperGalilee is rugged and relatively isolated. As a result, few biblicalevents unfolded there. In fact, Galilee is seldom mentioned in theOT, with the exception of Isa. 9:1, the passage that Matthew quotesin speaking of the inauguration of Jesus’ ministry in Galilee(Matt. 4:13–16).

Thewestern part of lower Galilee has ridges that run east to west,providing natural conduits for the winds from the Mediterranean Seaas they sweep eastward. This contributes to sudden and strong stormson the Sea of Galilee. The town of Nazareth is nestled near the topof the southernmost ridge, overlooking the Jezreel Valley from thenorth. This would have afforded Jesus a panoramic view of ahistorical stage as he was growing up. Nearby was Gath Hepher,hometown of the prophet Jonah (2Kings 14:25). As Jesus lookedeast, he would have seen Mount Tabor (Judg. 4–5) and MountMoreh (Judg. 7; 1Sam. 31). The “brow of the hill”at Nazareth (Luke 4:29) is a sharp precipice overlooking the JezreelValley. Although not mentioned in the Gospels, the Roman city ofSepphoris was only about three miles northwest of Nazareth, and itmight have been the place where Joseph was employed as a builder.Eastern lower Galilee is characterized by beautiful rolling hills andvalleys that slope down toward the Jordan Valley. Just west of theSea of Galilee are the cliffs of Arbel, past which the InternationalCoastal Highway made its way as it ran from the Jezreel Valley aroundMount Tabor and down into the Jordan Rift Valley.

JordanRift Valley.The Jordan Rift Valley, ranging in width from about four to fourteenmiles, is a remarkable geological cleft in the earth that extendswell beyond the immediate area of Israel. The Arabah, the Dead Sea,the Sea of Galilee, and the Huleh Valley north of the Sea of Galileelie in the Jordan Rift Valley. In modern times, the Arava (Arabah)refers to the wasteland between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Eilat(Aqaba), but in the OT the term also included the barren desert northof and around the Dead Sea (Josh. 8:14; 11:2; 1Sam. 23:24;2Sam. 2:29; 4:7). The Dead Sea was called the “Sea of theArabah” in texts that indicate its role as a boundary marker(Deut. 3:17; 4:49; Josh. 12:3; 2Kings 14:25).

Inthe Hebrew Bible, the Dead Sea is called the “Sea of Salt.”The mineral content exceeds 30percent, compared to normal seasalinity of 3–5percent. These minerals include calcium,potassium, magnesium, and sodium chlorides. Nevertheless, some algaeand bacteria do survive in the sea. Bitumen (asphalt) also seeps fromthe sea floor, especially when there is more seismic activity in theregion. The salinity varies, depending on the level of the Dead Sea,which does fluctuate with variations in rainfall. The level iscurrently receding rapidly, at a rate of almost three feet per year.One reason for this is the increasing demand for water from theheadwaters of the Jordan River. The north end of the sea, at aboutthirteen hundred feet below sea level, is the lowest place on earth,and the depth of the water at that point is more than one thousandfeet.

TheJordan River Valley north of the Dead Sea is approximately sixty-fivemiles long, and the Jordan River winds for over 120 miles. The name“Jordan” comes from the Hebrew word yarad, which means“to descend.” The Sea of Galilee is 690 feet below sealevel, so there is a significant drop between that point and thenorth end of the Dead Sea.

Keycities in the Jordan Valley include Jericho, just north of the DeadSea, and Beth Shan, at the junction of the Harod and Jordan valleys.The first city to be conquered (Josh. 6), Jericho represented thevulnerable “underbelly” of Canaan and paved the way forthe campaigns that swept first through the south and then the north(Josh. 9–11). Beth Shan was under Philistine control in theearly Israelite period. Later, it became the one Decapolis city westof the Jordan River and was known as Scythopolis.

TheJordan Valley has three sections. The entire expanse is called the“Ghor,” an Arabic name. The river valley itself is calledthe “Zhor,” and it includes the “pride” orthickets of the Jordan, a dense tangle of lush underbrush in whichlions could be found in the biblical period (Jer. 12:5; 49:19; 50:44;Zech. 11:3). In between the Ghor and the Zhor is the Qatarra,lifeless marl terraces. In antiquity, during flood stage the JordanRiver could be a mile wide. The Israelites crossed the Jordan in thespringtime, near Passover, when the river was at flood stage (Josh.3:15; 5:10).

TheJordan River has its headwaters north of the Sea of Galilee at thebase of Mount Hermon. It provides a constant source of freshwatercoming into the seven-by-thirteen-mile body of water. In addition,there are salt springs in the northwestern corner. These contributeto the good fishing in that part of the sea. The Hebrew name is “Yam[Sea of] Kinnereth” (Num. 34:11; Josh. 12:3; 13:27). It wasalso known as the Sea of Tiberias (John 6:1; 21:1) and the Lake ofGennesaret (Luke 5:1). This last name comes from the fertile plainaround the northwestern corner of the lake and the city of Gennesareton that plain.

Theministry of Jesus unfolded around the Sea of Galilee after he movedhis base of operations from Nazareth to Capernaum (Matt. 4:13), atthe northern end of the sea. Nearby were the cities of Bethsaida andChorazin, which, along with Capernaum, Jesus condemned for notbelieving even though he worked miracles in their midst (Matt.11:20–24). The city of Capernaum profited from the industriesof fishing and oil pressing. It was also a likely place for a taxcollector, as it was close to the border between Herod Antipas’sGalilee and Herod Philip’s territories to the east. Across thelake, in non-Jewish territory, was the town of Gergesa, perhaps thesite where Jesus sent the legion of demons into a herd of pigs (Mark5:1–20pars.).

Justnorth of the Sea of Galilee is an elevated sill, formed by a basaltflow across the Golan Heights and over this section of the JordanRift Valley. Hazor, a major site of some two hundred acres, satastride the sill and dominated the northern region in the Late Bronzeand Israelite periods. Hazor is mentioned in texts from both Mari inMesopotamia and El Amarna in Egypt.

TheHuleh Valley, north of the sill, is twenty miles in length andreceives about twenty-four inches of rain per year, making it amarshland swamp in antiquity that was called “LakeSemechonitis.” The International Coastal Highway made its wayalong the western edge of the valley, turned eastward past MountHermon, and continued to Damascus.

Transjordan.On the eastern side of the Jordan Rift Valley, at the very northernextent of Israel, Mount Hermon rises to nine thousand feet. Abundantprecipitation percolating through the limestone results in prolificsprings at its base. These are the headwaters of the Jordan River,the two most important of which are at Dan and Caesarea Philippi.With the abundance of water and lush surroundings, it is notsurprising that Dan was a tempting location for the tribe of Dan toresettle, given their precarious position between the tribe of Judahand the Philistines to the west. The idols set up at that point(Judg. 18:30–31) established a precedent for Jeroboam’schoice to position one of the golden calves there as an alternativeto worship in distant Jerusalem (1Kings 12:29–30).Another name for Caesarea Philippi is “Panias” (modernArabic, “Banias”), in celebration of the god Pan. Therock face from which the spring poured forth is covered with nichesfor pagan gods; Herod the Great also built a temple to Augustus. Inthis context, Peter declared that Jesus was the Christ, the Son ofthe “living” God (Matt. 16:16).

Theregion south of Mount Hermon was Bashan in the OT period. In the NTera it consisted of a number of small provinces. One of those wasGaulanitis, which is recognizable in the modern name “Golan.”With significant annual rainfall (about forty inches per year), thenatural vegetation includes trees and rich pasture that supportslarge herds (cf. the “bulls of Bashan” in Ps. 22:12;Ezek. 39:18).

Separatingthe region of Bashan from Lower Gilead is the Yarmuk River Gorge, asignificant natural boundary. There was an ongoing contest betweenthe northern kingdom of Israel and Syria to the northeast to controlthe key site of Ramoth Gilead (1Kings 22; 2Kings 9).Cutting through the elevated Dome of Gilead is the Jabbok River, thesite of Jacob’s wrestling match with God (Gen. 32).

Thearea to the east and south of the Dead Sea includes the plains ofMoab (Mishor), extending north of the Arnon River Gorge; geopoliticalMoab, between the Arnon and the Zered rivers; and Edom, reaching fromthe Zered down to the northern end of the Gulf of Eilat (Aqaba). Tothe east of the Mishor lay the kingdom of Ammon. According to Gen.19, Moab and Ammon were descendants of Lot by his daughters. Whenthey fled eastward from Sodom and Gomorrah, this was the general areathey settled.

Transjordanwas significant in the OT as the Israelites skirted Edom, conqueredthe cities of the Amorites and the king of Bashan, and encounteredMoab enroute to the promised land (Num. 20–25). Thetribes of Reuben and Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh requested theright to settle in Transjordan after the conquest of the land wascompleted (Num. 32). In the ensuing centuries these tribes sufferedthe ravages of war on the eastern front (Judg. 10:8; 1Sam.11:1; 2Kings 15:29; 1Chron. 5:23–26). In theintertestamental period most of northern and central Transjordan cameunder Hellenistic control. Decapolis cities were located in Bashan,Gilead, and as far south as Philadelphia, at the site of modernAmman.

Negev.To the south of the Judean hill country lies the Negev, whose namemeans both “dry” and “south.” The biblicalNegev is a smaller region shaped somewhat like a bowtie, withBeersheba at the center, Arad in the eastern basin, and Gerarcontrolling the western basin. The south end of the Philistine plainmerges with the western Negev. In the patriarchal period there weretensions over water rights between the herdsmen of Abraham and Isaacand those of the Philistine king Abimelek (Gen. 21:22–34;26:12–33). Although the region only receives eight to twelveinches of rainfall per year, this was sufficient to sustain smallpopulations, especially if they conserved water. The soil of theNegev is loess, a windblown powder from which the water simply runsoff unless catch basins are constructed.

Thebiblical Negev is bounded by the greater Negev to the south, whererugged limestone ridges predominate. An artificial line drawn fromGaza to Eilat, at the northern end of the Gulf of Eilat, defines thesouthwestern boundary of the greater Negev; the Jordan Rift Valley isthe eastern boundary. The Negev was historically a corridor for spicetrade coming from southwestern Arabia and India on the “ship ofthe desert” (the camel) to reach the Mediterranean markets. TheNabateans, Arab commercial nomads who knew the secrets of the desert,flourished in the spice trade from the fourth to the first centuriesBC. Once the Romans co-opted the spice trade, the Nabateans builtcities, developed water conservation techniques, and grew extensivevineyards.

TheTesting Ground of Faith

Becausethe land is marginal in terms of both sufficient rainfall andnational security, God’s covenant people faced the constantchallenge of obedience. The temptations to worship the Canaanite godsfor agricultural fertility and to form alliances with more-powerfulneighbors instead of putting their trust in God were powerful. Oftenthey succumbed and then experienced God’s chastisem*nt thatthey might return to him (Lev. 26). Even the land itself wouldexperience pollution due to the sins of its inhabitants (Lev. 18:25).In sum, the land was much more than living space; it was an integralpart of the Israelites’ identity as God’s covenantpeople. When it was flowing with “milk and honey,” thepeople experienced the shalom of God.

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

Because Scripture sees all things as providentially arrangedand sustained by God’s sovereign power at all times (Heb. 1:3),miracles are not aberrations in an otherwise closed and mechanicaluniverse. Nor are miracles raw demonstrations of divinity designed toovercome prejudice or unbelief and to convince people of theexistence of God (Mark 8:11–12). Still less are they cleverconjuring tricks involving some kind of deception that can beotherwise explained on a purely scientific basis. Rather, God in hisinfinite wisdom sometimes does unusual and extraordinary things tocall attention to himself and his activity. Miracles are divinelyordained acts of God that dramatically alert us to the presence ofhis glory and power and advance his saving purposes in redemptivehistory.

Terminology

Thebiblical writers describe miracles with various terms, such as“signs,” “wonders,” and “miracles”(or “powers”), which can carry various connotations. Asthe word “sign” suggests, divine miracles are significantand should cause us to think more deeply about God in a way that goesbeyond mere amazement or curiosity (Exod. 4:30–31; John 2:11).Not all of God’s signs are miraculous. Some are given as partof his ordering of the natural world (Gen. 1:14) or as anencouragement to faith that God will do as he has said (e.g., therainbow in Gen. 9:8–17; the blood of the Passover lamb in Exod.12:13). (See also Sign.)

Oftencoupled with signs are “wonders” (Jer. 32:21; John 4:48;2Cor. 12:12). If the depiction of miracles as “signs”indicates an appeal to the intellect, that of “wonders”points to the emotions. Miracles evoke astonishment and awe at theone who did them.

TheNT word “miracle” carries the meaning of power andtherefore points to the supernatural source of these events (Luke10:13; Acts 8:13).

Miraclesin the Bible

OldTestament.In the OT, miracles are not evenly distributed but rather are foundin greater number during times of great redemptive significance, suchas the exodus and the conquest of Canaan. Miracles were performedalso during periods of apostasy, such as in the days of theninth-century prophets Elijah and Elisha. Common to both of theseeras is the powerful demonstration of the superiority of God overpagan deities (Exod. 7–12; 1Kings 18:20–40).

NewTestament. Inthe NT, miracles often are acts of compassion, but more significantlythey attest the exalted status of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 2:22) andthe saving power of his word (Heb. 2:3–4). In the SynopticGospels, they reveal the coming of God’s kingdom and theconquest of Satan’s dominion (Matt. 8:16–17; 12:22–30;Mark 3:27). They point to the person of Jesus as the promised Messiahof OT Scripture (Matt. 4:23; 11:4–6). John shows a preferencefor the word “signs,” and his Gospel is structured aroundthem (John 20:30–31). According to John, the signs that Jesusperformed were such that only the one who stood in a uniquerelationship to the Father as the Son of God could do them.

Miraclesand faith.Just as entrenched skepticism is injurious to faith, so too is naivecredulity, for although signs and wonders witness to God, falseprophets also perform them “to deceive, if possible, even theelect” (Matt. 24:24). Christians are to exercise discernmentand not be led astray by such impostors (Matt. 7:15–20).

Therelationship between miracles and faith is not as straightforward assometimes supposed. Miracles do not necessarily produce faith, nordoes faith necessarily produce miracles. Miracles were intended tobring about the faith that leads to eternal life (John 20:31), butnot all who witnessed them believed (John 10:32). Additionally, Jesusregarded a faith that rested only on the miracle itself as precarious(Mark 8:11–13; John 2:23–25; 4:48), though better than nofaith at all (John 10:38). Faith that saves must ultimately find itsgrounding in the person of Jesus as the Son of God.

Itis also clear that although Jesus always encouraged faith in thosewho came to him for help (Mark 9:23), and that he deliberatelylimited his miraculous powers in the presence of unbelief (Mark 6:5),many of his miracles were performed on those who did not or could notexercise faith (Matt. 12:22; Mark 1:23–28; 5:1–20; Luke14:1–4).

Thefact that Jesus performed miracles was never an issue; rather, hisopponents disputed the source of his power (Mark 3:22). Argumentsabout his identity were to be settled by appeal not to miracles butto the word of God (Matt. 22:41–46).

Thefunction of miracles.Miracle accounts function in a symbolic and prophetic manner. Hence,the cursing of the fig tree was prophetic of the coming judgment(Mark 11:12–21). The unusual two-stage healing of the blind manof Bethsaida symbolized Peter’s incomplete understanding ofJesus’ messiahship (Mark 8:22–33).

Themiraculous element of Jesus’ ministry carries an eschatologicalsignificance, pointing to the order of things in the age to come. Forexample, the nature miracles (Mark 4:35–41) look forward to theredemption of creation itself, which is presently subject tofrustration and decay (Rom. 8:20–21); the healing miraclespoint to a day when disease and deformity will be abolished (Rev.21:4); and miracles in which the dead are raised to life anticipate atime when death itself will be no more (Rev. 20:14; 21:4). From thisperspective, the miracles are a gracious foretaste of a far moreglorious future.

Grief is great sadness or sorrow or the circ*mstances thatproduce such; mourning refers to expressions of grief. Grief andmourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they mayoccur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2Sam.13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Esther 4:3; Isa. 37:1), orrepentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, orboth.

Theexpressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gen. 23:2),wailing (Esther 4:3; Isa. 15:3; Mark 5:38), tearing clothes andwearing sackcloth (Gen. 37:34; 2Sam. 3:31), lying on the ground(2Sam. 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting ondust and ashes (Ezek. 27:30), fasting (2Sam. 3:35; 12:16),singing songs of lament (2Sam. 1:17–27; 3:32–35),pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezra 9:3), cutting the hair(Jer. 7:29), uncovering the head (Lev. 10:6), removing sandals (Ezek.24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7),and employing professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23; Mark5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such asslashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), andthe somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lev. 19:28;Deut. 14:1; cf. 1Kings 18:28).

Thus,grief and mourning were anything but stoic and brief. Grief wasexpressed both physically and vocally, often loudly, with expressionsranging from inarticulate groaning to poetic compositions in song.Although women may have been prominent among professional mourners,expressing grief was not considered unmasculine. Several times Davidwas a leader in expressing grief. That the expression of grief shouldbe brief, relatively dispassionate, and primarily characteristic ofwomen was a Greek development that entered the church through peoplesuch as Augustine, who, for example, felt grieved that he had verybriefly grieved the loss of his mother.

Paul’sadmonition that believers should not grieve as do those who have nohope (1Thess. 4:13) should not be construed as a dictum that itis wrong to grieve. The thought of the resurrection is a comfort in,not a replacement for, grief. Even Jesus wept at the death ofLazarus, knowing full well that he would soon resurrect him (John11:25, 35, 40). Further, saints who have died and gone to heavenlament (Rev. 6:10). Grief is restricted for active-duty priests andonce for Ezekiel, but these are clearly special circ*mstances andillustrate the normalcy of giving expression to grief. Ezekiel was tomoan with a groaning for the dead (often misread as groaningsilently) when his wife died, but he was not to engage in anymourning rites (Ezek. 24:15–27). This illustrated to Judah thecirc*mstances that they would face, without opportunity to mournproperly for their dead. Ezekiel 8:14 indicts the women of Jerusalemfor “mourning for Tammuz,” a pagan ritual involving thecycle of life, death, and rebirth of the Babylonian god Dumuzi.

Songsof lament are common in the OT. David composed a song of lamenthonoring the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2Sam. 1:17–27).After Joab’s unauthorized killing of Abner, David also sang alament for Abner and required Joab to participate in mourning rituals(3:31–37). David also mourned his own sons: the unnamed son ofBathsheba (12:16–18), Amnon (13:30–33), and Absalom(18:33–19:4). In the case of Bathsheba’s son, Davidmourned in advance of the boy’s death, which had beenprophetically proclaimed through Nathan. As the consequences of hissins continued, he progressively became undone in the mourning of hisother sons. Also, funeral songs are used as the form of someprophetic material (Ezek. 19:1–14; 26:17–18; 27:2–9,25–36; cf. Jer. 22:18; Amos 5:16). Not all laments are funeralsongs perse. Compare also the book of Lamentations and thepsalms of lament, also known as complaint psalms.

Expressionsof grief and mourning were called for as part of repentance,combining both fear of punishment and depth of sorrow over sin(2Chron. 34:19; Isa. 15:3; Joel 1:13).

Grief is great sadness or sorrow or the circ*mstances thatproduce such; mourning refers to expressions of grief. Grief andmourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they mayoccur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2Sam.13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Esther 4:3; Isa. 37:1), orrepentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, orboth.

Theexpressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gen. 23:2),wailing (Esther 4:3; Isa. 15:3; Mark 5:38), tearing clothes andwearing sackcloth (Gen. 37:34; 2Sam. 3:31), lying on the ground(2Sam. 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting ondust and ashes (Ezek. 27:30), fasting (2Sam. 3:35; 12:16),singing songs of lament (2Sam. 1:17–27; 3:32–35),pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezra 9:3), cutting the hair(Jer. 7:29), uncovering the head (Lev. 10:6), removing sandals (Ezek.24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7),and employing professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23; Mark5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such asslashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), andthe somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lev. 19:28;Deut. 14:1; cf. 1Kings 18:28).

Thus,grief and mourning were anything but stoic and brief. Grief wasexpressed both physically and vocally, often loudly, with expressionsranging from inarticulate groaning to poetic compositions in song.Although women may have been prominent among professional mourners,expressing grief was not considered unmasculine. Several times Davidwas a leader in expressing grief. That the expression of grief shouldbe brief, relatively dispassionate, and primarily characteristic ofwomen was a Greek development that entered the church through peoplesuch as Augustine, who, for example, felt grieved that he had verybriefly grieved the loss of his mother.

Paul’sadmonition that believers should not grieve as do those who have nohope (1Thess. 4:13) should not be construed as a dictum that itis wrong to grieve. The thought of the resurrection is a comfort in,not a replacement for, grief. Even Jesus wept at the death ofLazarus, knowing full well that he would soon resurrect him (John11:25, 35, 40). Further, saints who have died and gone to heavenlament (Rev. 6:10). Grief is restricted for active-duty priests andonce for Ezekiel, but these are clearly special circ*mstances andillustrate the normalcy of giving expression to grief. Ezekiel was tomoan with a groaning for the dead (often misread as groaningsilently) when his wife died, but he was not to engage in anymourning rites (Ezek. 24:15–27). This illustrated to Judah thecirc*mstances that they would face, without opportunity to mournproperly for their dead. Ezekiel 8:14 indicts the women of Jerusalemfor “mourning for Tammuz,” a pagan ritual involving thecycle of life, death, and rebirth of the Babylonian god Dumuzi.

Songsof lament are common in the OT. David composed a song of lamenthonoring the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2Sam. 1:17–27).After Joab’s unauthorized killing of Abner, David also sang alament for Abner and required Joab to participate in mourning rituals(3:31–37). David also mourned his own sons: the unnamed son ofBathsheba (12:16–18), Amnon (13:30–33), and Absalom(18:33–19:4). In the case of Bathsheba’s son, Davidmourned in advance of the boy’s death, which had beenprophetically proclaimed through Nathan. As the consequences of hissins continued, he progressively became undone in the mourning of hisother sons. Also, funeral songs are used as the form of someprophetic material (Ezek. 19:1–14; 26:17–18; 27:2–9,25–36; cf. Jer. 22:18; Amos 5:16). Not all laments are funeralsongs perse. Compare also the book of Lamentations and thepsalms of lament, also known as complaint psalms.

Expressionsof grief and mourning were called for as part of repentance,combining both fear of punishment and depth of sorrow over sin(2Chron. 34:19; Isa. 15:3; Joel 1:13).

Grief is great sadness or sorrow or the circ*mstances thatproduce such; mourning refers to expressions of grief. Grief andmourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they mayoccur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2Sam.13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Esther 4:3; Isa. 37:1), orrepentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, orboth.

Theexpressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gen. 23:2),wailing (Esther 4:3; Isa. 15:3; Mark 5:38), tearing clothes andwearing sackcloth (Gen. 37:34; 2Sam. 3:31), lying on the ground(2Sam. 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting ondust and ashes (Ezek. 27:30), fasting (2Sam. 3:35; 12:16),singing songs of lament (2Sam. 1:17–27; 3:32–35),pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezra 9:3), cutting the hair(Jer. 7:29), uncovering the head (Lev. 10:6), removing sandals (Ezek.24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7),and employing professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23; Mark5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such asslashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), andthe somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lev. 19:28;Deut. 14:1; cf. 1Kings 18:28).

Thus,grief and mourning were anything but stoic and brief. Grief wasexpressed both physically and vocally, often loudly, with expressionsranging from inarticulate groaning to poetic compositions in song.Although women may have been prominent among professional mourners,expressing grief was not considered unmasculine. Several times Davidwas a leader in expressing grief. That the expression of grief shouldbe brief, relatively dispassionate, and primarily characteristic ofwomen was a Greek development that entered the church through peoplesuch as Augustine, who, for example, felt grieved that he had verybriefly grieved the loss of his mother.

Paul’sadmonition that believers should not grieve as do those who have nohope (1Thess. 4:13) should not be construed as a dictum that itis wrong to grieve. The thought of the resurrection is a comfort in,not a replacement for, grief. Even Jesus wept at the death ofLazarus, knowing full well that he would soon resurrect him (John11:25, 35, 40). Further, saints who have died and gone to heavenlament (Rev. 6:10). Grief is restricted for active-duty priests andonce for Ezekiel, but these are clearly special circ*mstances andillustrate the normalcy of giving expression to grief. Ezekiel was tomoan with a groaning for the dead (often misread as groaningsilently) when his wife died, but he was not to engage in anymourning rites (Ezek. 24:15–27). This illustrated to Judah thecirc*mstances that they would face, without opportunity to mournproperly for their dead. Ezekiel 8:14 indicts the women of Jerusalemfor “mourning for Tammuz,” a pagan ritual involving thecycle of life, death, and rebirth of the Babylonian god Dumuzi.

Songsof lament are common in the OT. David composed a song of lamenthonoring the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2Sam. 1:17–27).After Joab’s unauthorized killing of Abner, David also sang alament for Abner and required Joab to participate in mourning rituals(3:31–37). David also mourned his own sons: the unnamed son ofBathsheba (12:16–18), Amnon (13:30–33), and Absalom(18:33–19:4). In the case of Bathsheba’s son, Davidmourned in advance of the boy’s death, which had beenprophetically proclaimed through Nathan. As the consequences of hissins continued, he progressively became undone in the mourning of hisother sons. Also, funeral songs are used as the form of someprophetic material (Ezek. 19:1–14; 26:17–18; 27:2–9,25–36; cf. Jer. 22:18; Amos 5:16). Not all laments are funeralsongs perse. Compare also the book of Lamentations and thepsalms of lament, also known as complaint psalms.

Expressionsof grief and mourning were called for as part of repentance,combining both fear of punishment and depth of sorrow over sin(2Chron. 34:19; Isa. 15:3; Joel 1:13).

Definitionof Terms

Theterm “pagan” has two separate but related definitions inthe English language, both of which are somewhat misleading whenapplied to religions in the ancient Near East. The first definitiondefines a pagan as someone who follows a less-established religion ora person who is outside the mainstream of belief within a givensociety. Applying this definition to an ancient Near Eastern religionis somewhat misleading because often within biblical society theJewish or Christian belief system was the religion that was outsidethe mainstream. Being outside the mainstream certainly was a fact oflife for first-century Christians, who often were persecuted as ifthey were atheists and for their failure to acknowledge a pantheon ofgods, which was a mainstream belief. In OT society the competingreligions, especially the Canaanite and Babylonian pantheons,certainly were more widely accepted and followed. Even withinIsraelite society these non-Israelite religions offered a viablealternative to the religion of Yahweh. Thus, if one were to use thisdefinition either in the OT or the NT, it likely would need to beapplied to the religion of the Jews and Christians and not theprevailing religions of the Canaanites, the Babylonians, the Greeks,or the Romans.

Thesecond English definition of the term “pagan” involvesthe worship of the gods or forces of nature that control the world.This definition is applied specifically to agrarian societies, wherethe changing of seasons, the bringing of favorable weather andgrowing conditions for the crops, the possibility for prosperity thatgood weather brings, and a general desire for fertility are part ofthe religious understanding and belief system. While this definitioncertainly applies to many of the non-Israelite religions followed bythe Israelites’ neighbors and to some of the Greeks and Romansof the NT, it also would apply to many of the followers of Yahweh inthe OT who saw Yahweh as the God of the mountains and storms indirect conflict with the Baal myth, which ascribed these traits toBaal (see below). Therefore, it is prudent to remember that the label“pagan gods” is anachronistic and should be used withcare when discussing the religions described in the Bible.

Ona related note, the terminology of “idolatry” is alsooften misunderstood. Most of the non-Israelite religions discussed inthe Bible would have understood the images of their gods to berepresentations of the deity (or even a throne or meeting place forthe god) rather than an object of worship in its own right. Whilethey would have believed that the god dwelled in the object and waspresent when worship was being performed, they would not havebelieved that the object was the god. Most of the idols made in theancient Near East are indistinguishable from one another unless oneobserves their specific weapons. This, coupled with the idol’santhropomorphic representation, rather than a heavenlyrepresentation, suggests that the concern for early worshipers wasnot to worship an inanimate image, but rather to see a representationof the god who indwelled the image if worshiped correctly. It was thepresence of the god that was desired. Thus, the prohibition againstimages in the OT is a prohibition against trying to depict Yahweh inany physical form.

Whendealing with the non-Israelite gods of the Bible, it is helpful todivide them into historical periods. Within the OT, the majorgroupings of non-Israelite gods should include the gods of theCanaanites and the gods of the Babylonians (which are very similar tothe gods of the Assyrians). To a lesser degree the gods of thePhilistines, the Egyptians, and the Persians can also be considered.In the NT, the gods of the Greeks and the Romans (which often areassimilated Greek gods with new names) can be considered. Along withthese somewhat artificial historical divisions are innumerablepersonal gods and local gods worshiped by small groups of people oreven by a single town or village. For example, Gen. 31:30 referencesLaban’s gods, which Rachel steals when she leaves home totravel with Jacob. These personal gods likely played a huge role inthe day-to-day life of the average person, but most often they arelost to history. Similarly in the NT, the mystery religions of theGreeks and the Romans likely played an important role in the lives ofmany people, but they are difficult to reconstruct because of thelimited amount of documentation that has survived.

CanaanitePantheon

Thereis considerable overlap between the Canaanite pantheon and those ofthe Mesopotamian cultures, and often this can create some confusionabout the deities being discussed, especially their names andfunctions. Further complicating matters, the descriptions of godswithin the Mesopotamian pantheons often have fluid identities, asdifferent textual traditions conflict with each other at times. Boththe Canaanite and the Babylonian pantheons borrow heavily from theSumerian pantheon, which adds both to their similarities and to thepossibility of confusion.

Withoutquestion, the most important god within the Canaanite pantheon wasBaal. The story of Baal, often called the “Baal Cycle,”describes the life and deeds of Baal. The cult of Baal was afertility religion, and all the events of Baal’s life wereconnected to the changing seasons and nature’s fertility. TheBaal Cycle also explained how the worship of Baal affected theagricultural success of farmers. This detailed story of Baal was allbut unknown, except for a few details that could be gleaned from theBible, prior to the accidental discovery of the city of Ugarit andits extensive library in 1928 by a farmer plowing his field. The cityof Ugarit appears to have been a major trading center between theyears of about 1450 and 1200 BC. Besides Baal, other importantdeities within the pantheon were El, the elderly, long-bearded fathergod; Asherah, El’s wife, or occasionally portrayed as Baal’swife or sister; and Mot, the god of death, usually represented as asnake.

Baalwas the god of weather, especially thunder, lightning, and rain (Baalis almost always depicted with a lightning bolt in one hand and a rodof power in the other). Other representations or symbols of Baalinclude the bull (the strongest and most powerful animal of theancient Near East), water, mist, dew, grain, oil, and any othersymbol of fertility. Worship of Baal was intended to keep him happyin order to assure the coming of spring (preferably, early), thenecessary rain for crops, and finally the lengthening of summer sothat two crops could be planted and harvested. The second crop, whichoften was the crop that a farmer could sell for a profit (the firstbeing reserved for the farmer’s own food), was especially tiedto the favor of Baal. Baal was worshiped not only in hope ofa*gricultural prosperity but also for family fertility in terms ofchildren and for help in battle. The primary means for producing andkeeping the favor of Baal was by offering the firstfruits of anyharvest to him. When the first portion of a crop was harvested, itwas expected that a portion of that harvest (most often a tithe) beoffered to Baal in hopes of receiving his favor and extending thegrowing season. Not only were the first of the crops to be given toBaal but also the firstborn of all herded animals. It was also acommon practice for the firstborn of a family to be given to Baal inhuman sacrifice. Baal is often referred to as Molek in the Bible(e.g., Jer. 19) when describing human sacrifice. Another practice ofBaal worship was ritual sexual intercourse between a worshiper and apriest or a priestess. This ritual sexual activity was thought toincrease the fertility of the worshiper, thereby increasing thechances of having more children.

Apparentlyfor much of the history of Israel, especially during the monarchy,Baal worship offered an enticing alternative to the worship ofYahweh. In fact, the stories of Elijah and Elisha serve as a directpolemic against Baal worship. Most of the stories of Elijah andElisha use the symbols of Baal to demonstrate that Yahweh is muchstronger than Baal. By the time of the first century AD, Baal worshipwas a thing of the past, but some vestiges of the worship remained.For example, in the Gospels Jesus says that a person cannot worshipboth “God and money” (KJV: “mammon”) (Matt.6:24; Luke 16:13). The Greek word translated “money,”mamōnas, is borrowed from Aramaic and actually refers to theworship of Baal, but by Jesus’ time it had evolved to take onthe more generic definition “prosperity.”

Alongwith Baal, the worship of Asherah, a female member of the pantheon,was common. Although scholars are not completely sure of its form, itis believed that the reference in the OT to “Asherah poles”was likely a reference to a phallic symbol that represented fertility(Judg. 6:26; 1Kings 14:23). Recently, several references toAsherah have been discovered in Kuntillet ‘Ajrud innortheastern Sinai, dated to about the eighth century. Theseinscriptions say that Asherah was the consort of Yahweh rather thanBaal, providing further evidence for the amount of syncretism presentin Israel during the monarchy. Another female deity, Ashtoreth (knownalso by her Mesopotamian name, “Ishtar”), is called“Queen of Heaven” several times in the book of Jeremiah(7:18; 44:17–19,25).

Inrelationship to the infiltration of Baal worship into the northernkingdom is the debate about the nature of the “sin of Jeroboam”that was instituted by JeroboamI when he, along with the tennorthern tribes, ceded from Israel (1Kings 12:25–33). Atissue is whether Jeroboam was instituting a new religion based on thecalves, thus becoming syncretistic with these tribes’ northernPhoenician neighbors (which would have been tantamount to introducingBaal worship into Israel), or simply rejecting the centrality ofJerusalem for Yahweh worship (which only a few years before had beencentralized in Jerusalem by Solomon’s temple, resulting in thedisenfranchisem*nt of the Levites outside Jerusalem). Clearly, thesouthern kingdom viewed the events as apostasy, but whether thenorthern tribes did is unclear. Amos, for example, seems to focus hiscriticism of the cult at Bethel not on the worship itself but ratheron the hypocrisy of the worshipers, who were not following the law asprescribed in the Torah.

BabylonianPantheon

Althoughdebate continues over the exact relationship between the two, theBabylonian pantheon had many elements similar to the Canaanitepantheon. There are dozens of primary documents about the religion ofBabylon; the most important of them include the Enuma Elish, acreation story and apologetic for Marduk the chief of gods; theAtrahasis Epic, which has a version of the flood story in it; and theEpic of Gilgamesh, which describes the quest for eternal life by KingGilgamesh. Within the Babylonian pantheon, Marduk is the chief ofgods, who is also the patron god of Babylonia. The Enuma Elish, whichdescribes the creation of the world, deals primarily with theascension of Marduk to the role of chief god by destroying the forcesof chaos represented by the monster Tiamat and bringing order to boththe pantheon and the natural world. Marduk, like Baal, had retainedthe most powerful cosmic weapons, which include water, rain, and war.The Epic of Gilgamesh describes the journey of King Gilgamesh, who ispart human and part divine, in search of immortality. During thecourse of his trip, he learns that eternal life is reserved for thegods, and humans must make their mark on the world by what they doduring their lives. The Babylonian religion and pantheon exerted itsstrongest influence on Israel during the exile. The biblical textclearly has been influenced by these Babylonian beliefs. However, theBible consistently presents these viewpoints as contrary to the trueworship of Yahweh and insists that only Yahweh deserves worship asthe true creator of the world, vanquisher of chaos, and provider ofprosperity and life.

OtherAncient Near Eastern Pantheons

TheEgyptian gods are mentioned only briefly in the Bible. The most overtreferences to the gods of Egypt are found in the story of the tenplagues, which most scholars believe was a direct attack on thedeities of Egypt by Yahweh. It is unclear if the calf described inExod. 32 should be understood as an Egyptian god, a completely new ordifferent god, or as a forbidden representation of Yahweh.

Littleis known about the Philistine pantheon of gods, but it appears to bequite similar to the Canaanite pantheon (if not the same with localvariations). The Philistines’ chief god, referred to in theBible as “Dagon” (Judg. 16:23; 1Sam. 5:2–7;1Chron. 10:10), likely also went by the name “Baal-Zebul”(“Lord Prince”), which in the OT is mocked by beingchanged to “Baal-Zebub” (“Lord of the Flies”)(2Kings 1:2–3, 6, 16). In the NT, this god is recalledwhen the Pharisees accuse Jesus of being in league with Satan (Matt.12:24; Luke 11:15 [Gk. Beelzeboul]). Because the Philistines wereknown as the Sea Peoples, it is not surprising that this deity hadseveral fishlike qualities (including a fish tail).

NewTestament Religion

Inthe NT, the Greek pantheon that was subsumed by the Roman pantheonwas the common religious expression of the day. Like other ancientpantheons, these pantheons tried to explain the natural world by theinvolvement of various deities in nature. Proof that Jews living inthe province of Judah were under constant pressure to assimilate tothe Greek religion is provided in the reports of the books ofMaccabees that describe the Jewish revolt against the Seleucids inwhat was essentially a religious war against assimilation. In theGospels, little is said about the Greek or Roman pantheons, but thebook of Acts contains several reports of Paul’s interactionwith the Greeks and their religious practices. Especially notable isPaul’s interaction with the Athenians when he debatedphilosophers who were followers of the “Unknown God”(Acts 17:23). Three other deities are named in Acts, includingArtemis in Ephesus (Acts 19:24, 27–28, 34–35), whom theRomans called “Diana,” and Zeus and Hermes (Acts14:12–13), called “Jupiter” and “Mercury”by the Romans, whom Paul and Barnabas were mistaken for in Lystrawhen Paul preached and healed a crippled man.

Summary

Theproblem of God’s people Israel worshiping other gods permeatesmost of biblical history. These reports range over time from theearly story of Rachel in Genesis, to the period of the judges whenMicah’s images (Judg. 17:1–6) and Gideon’s ephod(Judg. 8:26–27) were worshiped, to when Solomon and his wiveswere worshiping foreign gods (1Kings 11:5–8), to the timeof Ahab when all Israel followed Baal, whom Elijah vanquished onMount Carmel (1Kings 18:16–46). Depending on when onedates the book of Deuteronomy, the strong prohibitions againstidolatry either went unheeded (if Moses wrote the book) or were aculminating statement of the anti-idolatry Deuteronomistic writerjust before the exile. There is considerable debate about when Israelbecame an exclusively monotheistic nation (if it ever did), but bythe eighth century BC, Isaiah and Amos castigate worshipers of thesefalse gods. Clearly, by the time of Jeremiah, some factions withinIsrael (the prophet included) have begun to question whether the godsof the other nations even exist (Jer. 2:28). Finally, with thedestruction of the temple in Jerusalem, ironically, the worship ofother gods is ended. It is certain that by the time of the firstcentury AD, the evolution to a monotheistic view is complete, andPaul can claim that an “idol is nothing” (1Cor.8:4), and that any sin is tantamount to idolatry (Eph.5:5).

The name “Phoenicia” probably comes from theGreek word phoinix, meaning “purple red.” This namederived from the famous purple red dye made from the murex snail thatwas produced in this region. The evidence shows that the Phoenicianswere primarily sea traders and artists.

Thegeographical and chronological boundaries for Phoenicia areimprecise, in part because the term “Phoenician” is notmentioned before Homer. In Homer the inhabitants of Sidon are called“Phoenicians,” but it is possible that the term may firstoccur in Mycenaean LinearB texts of the thirteenth century BC.Based on the written records, it is safe to assume that the heartlandof Phoenicia was along the coastal regions of modern-day Lebanon,extending to parts of Syria and Israel.

InOT times the territory occupied by the Phoenicians was called“Canaan” by the Israelites (Isa. 23:11), “Canaanite”(Heb. kena’an means “merchant”) being the nameapplied by the inhabitants to themselves (Gen. 10:18). It isimportant to note that this self-designation is found as late as thesecond century BC on coins minted in Beirut (“Laodicea, whichis in Canaan”). However, since Phoenicia was usually formed ofindependent city-states, it was common practice in all periods torefer to Phoenicia by the name of one of its principal cities(Gubla/Byblos, Tyre, Sidon).

Theorigin of the Phoenicians is obscure, but the earliest archaeologicalevidence for their presence comes from the “proto-Phoenician”finds at Byblos (ancient Gubla/Gebel [see Ezek. 27:9]) dated toaround 3000 BC. There is also plenty of evidence of trade andcorrespondence with Egypt during the Bronze Age periods.

Bythe time of David, Tyre was ruled by HiramI, whose reign begana golden age. Phoenicia became allied commercially with David (2Sam.5:11; 1Kings 5:1), and Hiram supplied Solomon with wood, stone,and craftsmen for the construction of the temple and Solomon’spalace (1Kings 5:1–12; 2Chron. 2:3–16). Shipsand navigators from Phoenicia were sent to assist the Judean fleetand to develop the port of Ezion Geber as a base for commerce(1Kings 9:27). Phoenicia, itself long influenced by Egyptianart, motifs, and methods, was now in a position to influenceIsraelite art.

Duringthe ninth and eighth centuries BC, the Phoenicians expanded into thewestern Mediterranean and founded colonies in Sardinia, Sicily, NorthAfrica, and Iberia. Alexander the Great captured Tyre in the fourthcentury BC, and the slaughter and destruction were extreme, but thecity recovered and, like Sidon, was still prosperous in Hellenisticand Roman times (see, e.g., Matt. 11:21–22; Acts 12:20).

Phoenicianreligion had a pantheon that differed from city to city and from oneage to the next. Nature and fertility deities predominated. Thefollowing were their chief deities: Baal, Astarte, Eshmun, Adonis,Melqart, and Tanit (more popular in North Africa). Baal, the chiefgod of Tyre and Sidon, was at times the leading rival to Yahwehworship in Israel (1Kings 16:29–22:18), and his consortwas Astarte.

ThePhoenicians spoke a Northwest Semitic language closely related toHebrew and Aramaic, and according to Herodotus, the Phoeniciansintroduced the alphabet to Greece. The Phoenician alphabetic scriptis similar to early Hebrew and Aramaic scripts from the firstmillennium BC.

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

In 1928 a Syrian peasant farmer stumbled by chance onto afunerary vault of ancient provenance about half a mile from theMediterranean coastline of Syria and about six miles north of themodern-day city of Latakia. This unforeseen discovery led to anarchaeological excavation of Tell Ras Shamra (Cape Fennel) by theeminent French excavator Claude Schaeffer. What Schaeffer’steam unearthed was not merely an ancient tomb, but a city completewith palaces, private homes, temples, and streets paved with stone.

Withinthe first year of excavation, the ruins of Ugarit yielded a cache ofclay tablets bearing a cuneiform script in a language hithertounknown. From these mysterious texts scholars deciphered analphabetic script written in a West Semitic language related toCanaanite, Arabic, and biblical Hebrew.

TheKingdom of Ugarit

Thesite of the ancient city of Ugarit, Tell Ras Shamra, is enclosed bytwo small rivers that flow westward into the Mediterranean Sea. Thepresence of water ensured the fertility of the surrounding plain;thus a good crop of cereals, grapes, and olives was available tosupplement the fishing industry as a local supply of food. Thekingdom encompassed about twelve hundred square miles, bounded by thenatural geography of the region. To the west of the site lies theMediterranean, with a port that supplied an important route forinternational trade. To the south, the east, and the north aremountain ranges, including Mount Zaphon, whose majesty is recorded inIsa. 14:13. Indeed, the name “Zaphon” becomes simply ageneral word for “north” in biblical Hebrew.

Thesite of Tell Ras Shamra was occupied as far back as Neolithic times(seventh millennium BC), yet the kingdom of Ugarit properly dates tothe second millennium BC. The time of Ugarit’s greatestflourishing was the period just prior to its destruction: from thefourteenth to the twelfth centuries BC, during the Late Bronze Age.The prosperity of the kingdom reached its height during this period.Ugarit’s coastal access and strategic location as a central hubwithin the matrix of Late Bronze Age superpowers made Ugarit animportant focal point for international trade routes, both maritimeand overland. Late Bronze Age Ugaritic society was diverse andcosmopolitan, a feature perhaps best epitomized by its scribaltraining center, in which tablets bearing inscriptions in severaldifferent languages have been discovered.

Around1200 BC, in approximately the same time frame as the exodus of theHebrews from Egypt, Ugarit met an untimely demise. (Note that somebiblical scholars date the exodus from Egypt during the fifteenthcentury BC rather than the thirteenth.) Royal documents from theEgyptian and Hittite kingdoms, as well as one from Ugarit, record aconcern over a group of invaders known as the Sea Peoples. The SeaPeoples likely originated in the northwest, leaving their mark on thecoasts of Turkey, Cyprus, and the Levant. The descendants of theinvading Sea Peoples remained on the coast of Palestine, and thebiblical text refers to them as the Philistines. The destruction ofUgarit is attributed to these invaders from the sea. Thearchaeological remains of Tell Ras Shamra show that many homes wereabandoned as invaders set the city on fire. Ugarit burned to theground sometime between 1190 and 1185 BC.

TheTexts of Ugarit

Morethan fifteen hundred Ugaritic texts have been discovered sinceexcavations began at Tell Ras Shamra. The texts are written ontablets with wedgelike markings impressed into the clay by scribesusing a triangular-shaped reed stylus. The majority of the texts ofUgarit were found in and around the remains of the royal palacegrounds and temples, but some were found in the homes of high-rankingpalace administrators and businessmen. The subject matter of thesetexts is diverse, and the various genres of written material fromUgarit include official letters, administrative and economic texts,scribal training texts, and religious and literary texts. Thecosmopolitan character of Ugarit is also reflected in its texts.Among the various tablets discovered, many were written in Akkadian,which was the lingua franca of the Late Bronze Age in this region.Still other texts were written in various ancient Near Easternlanguages; Hurrian, Hittite, and Cypro-Minoan, and Egyptianhieroglyphs were found inscribed into some artifacts, as well as uponcylinder seals.

Letters.Theletter documents of Ugarit are formal in style with scriptedintroductions and closings, like most royal letters from the ancientNear East. Two notable examples may be pointed out. The first is aletter from the king of Tyre in Phoenicia (for Iron Age references tothe city of Tyre, see Josh. 19:29; 2Sam. 5:11; Ezek. 28) to theking of Ugarit. The occasion of the letter is the shipwreck of aUgaritic trade vessel bound for Egypt that crashed on the coastlineof Phoenicia after a violent storm. The king of Tyre writes that noneof the ship’s crew survived, and its cargo was lost at sea. Asecond epistolary example is a letter written by the king ofCarchemish in the Hittite Empire (see Isa. 10:9; Jer. 46:2) to thelast king of Ugarit, Ammurapi. The occasion of this epistle is theHittite king’s perceived mistreatment of his daughter who wasmarried to Ammurapi. The letter suggests an impending divorce betweenthe royal couple, detailing the division of their joint property.

Administrativeand economic texts. Theroyal palace and temples provided the driving engine of Ugarit’seconomy. Many discovered texts shed light upon the kinds of goods andactivities that comprised local and international trade. Examples ofadministrative texts include lists of various towns within thekingdom of Ugarit, tributes that such towns paid to the king in theform of goods or labor service, lists of temple personnel withaccompanying salaries, and details of distributed goods to those inroyal service. Examples of economic texts include purchase receiptsand bills of lading from maritime trade for products such as wool,grains, olives, milk, and metal ore.

Scribaltraining texts. Amongthe rich archives of texts at Ugarit, more than one hundred tabletsbear witness to scribal training activities scattered throughout thecity grounds. Scribes were universally employed by royal empiresduring the Late Bronze Age, but the sheer number of texts (thousands)found at Ugarit is unusual for a relatively small excavation site.Archives of texts were found in groups throughout the city, and inmany of these archives excavators found tablets of special interest,called “abecedaries.” An abecedary is a tablet on whichthe cuneiform alphabet is written. The Ugaritic alphabet containedthirty signs in roughly the same order as the Hebrew alphabet,largely the same in content as the English alphabet. In addition toUgaritic abecedaries, a Ugaritic-Akkadian abecedary was found inwhich equivalent phonetic values are given from the Ugaritic alphabetinto Akkadian signs. Lexicons, or word lists, also were discovered,listing words from various ancient Near Eastern languages. Indeed,some of the tablets found in the archives are clearly practicetablets used to train scribes: these tablets display clear signswritten by a scribal teacher at the top of the tablet, with the lessskilled markings of the apprentice scribe written below. Thus, it islikely that Ugarit served as a training center for scribes from allover the ancient Near East, as well as its own.

Religioustexts. Twolarge temples dominate the northern acropolis region of Ugarit: thetemple of Baal, the god of fertility, and the temple of Dagon, thegod of grain. Mythology was the vehicle of religious expression inthe ancient Near East. Stories about the gods communicated somethingof the gods’ purposes and realms of authority. In themythological literature of Ugarit, the pantheon of gods dwelt onMount Zaphon, and from the dwelling place of El, the high god, riversof life-giving water flowed. The name “El” was sharedamong Semitic languages and religions throughout the ancient NearEast, including the OT. The name “El” in the Bible canrefer either to a foreign god (e.g., Deut. 3:24: “What god[’el] is there in heaven or on earth who can do the deeds andmighty works you do?”) or to the God of Israel (e.g., Gen.49:25; Deut. 7:9; Ps. 68:19–20). In the pantheon of Ugarit,El’s female consort was the goddess Asherah (1Kings18:19; Judg. 3:7).

El,however, was a more distant god in the religion of Ugarit, and thecity’s patron god was Baal, the storm god. Baal was associatedwith fertile fields, abundant crops, and the birth of sons anddaughters. The goddess Anat is sometimes described as Baal’sconsort, and at other times as Baal’s sister. Anat is thegoddess of war, and the epic mythological literature of Ugaritportrays her warfare in rather graphic and gruesome detail. Somescholars claim that Prov. 7:22–23 alludes to Anat’swarfare in the portrayal of the adulterous woman.

Someof the same epithets and accomplishments of Baal found in thereligious texts of Ugarit are also attributed to Yahweh in the OT.For example, Baal is called the “Rider of the Clouds” inUgaritic literature, and a similar description of Yahweh is found inPss. 68:4 (“Extol him who rides on the clouds”) and 104:3(“He makes the clouds his chariot and rides on the wings of thewind”). This likely reflects a common ancient Near Easternconcern over the regularity of rain for producing crops, as well as abiblical assertion that Yahweh is superior to Canaanite deities, suchas Baal, who claim authority over the forces of nature. Indeed, theOT mocks the impotence of the Canaanite deity Baal to wield powerover the forces of nature in narratives such as Elijah versus theprophets of Baal (1Kings 18:16–45).

Baalis also portrayed in the religious literature of Ugarit as the godwho conquered the rival gods Sea (Yam) and Death (Motu). The OT givessimilar portrayals of Israel’s God in texts such as Gen. 1:2;Isa. 25:7–8. In Gen. 1:2 God’s Spirit “was hoveringover the waters,” “the deep,” or the primordialwaters from which God brings to life the created world and all ofnature (cf. Job 38:8–11). In Isa. 25:7–8 Yahweh isportrayed as more powerful than death in a text of praise that extolshis power by saying that “he will swallow up death forever.”Again the biblical texts rely upon a stock set of religious symbols,language, and imagery common to ancient Near Eastern peoples toportray Yahweh, the all-powerful, one God of Israel.

Conclusion

Thediscovery of Ugarit was an earthshaking event for biblical studies.Scholars have only begun to garner the gems of knowledge hiddenwithin the remains of this lost civilization. The study of theUgaritic language is invaluable for better understanding biblicalHebrew. Ugaritic sheds light particularly upon rare words and phrasesused in the biblical text, as well as upon literary devices andpoetic structure, such as parallelism and meter. Furthermore, thestudy of Ugarit’s religion illuminates the backdrop ofCanaanite worship, against which is set the worship of Yahweh in theOT. Ugarit provides for us a snapshot of Late Bronze Age Canaan, thecrucible of ancient Near Eastern culture from which the Hebrew Biblewas birthed.

The Bible does not have a generic term for the idea of color,but it does use various colors for descriptive and symbolic purposes,and it also refers to different coloring processes. Items can bedescribed as “dyed” (Exod. 25:5), “multicolored”(Ezek. 27:24), or “speckled” (Gen. 30:32) to indicatechanges or variety of color.

Certaincolors are commonly used in the Bible (listed below), while othersoccur rarely (e.g., brown and yellow) or not at all (e.g., orange),reflecting the range of colors and dyes available in the ancient NearEast. Colors are most often used for two purposes: to describe luxuryitems indicating wealth and power, and to describe the earthly andheavenly dwelling places of God. Ordinary people and places are notusually described in terms of the colors of their appearance.Exceptions to this include Esau (Gen. 25:25), David (1 Sam.17:42), and the male lover in Song of Songs (5:10–11).

Thefollowing colors have particular significance or symbolic meaning inthe Bible:

White.Used to describe the symptoms of leprosy (Lev. 13:3–4), whitemuch more commonly has a positive association, being the color ofpurity (Isa. 1:18; Rev. 3:4) and glory (Dan. 7:9; Matt. 17:2; Rev.1:14). Angels appear white (Matt. 28:3) or are dressed in white (Mark16:2; Acts 1:10). The multitude of worshipers in heaven will wearwhite robes (Rev. 7:9), having been washed in the blood of the Lamb.

Black.The female lover in the Song of Songs admires the raven black hair ofher beloved (Song 5:11). However, black things usually have lesspositive connotations: storm clouds (1 Kings 18:45), diseasedskin (Job 30:30), and the effects of the plague of locusts (Exod.10:15). Blackness can also be a sign of judgment (Rev. 6:5, 12).

Red.Red is the color of the earth, the color of wine, and the color ofblood. Red dyes could be made from crushed insects, plants, andminerals, giving a wide range of different shades (red, scarlet, andcrimson are common in the Bible). Scarlet yarn and red-dyed animalskins were included in the offerings made for the construction of thetabernacle (Exod. 25:3–5). Red was used to symbolize sin (Isa.1:18) and was also associated with warfare (Nah. 2:3; Rev. 6:4).

Blue.Blue tassels adorned every Hebrew garment as a reminder of God’scommandments (Num. 15:38). In the Persian court the royal colors wereblue, white, and purple (Esther 1:6; 8:15), and blue garments wereworn by the young Assyrian governors (Ezek. 23:6).

Purple.Purple dye was very expensive, so purple cloth was used as a sign ofwealth (Prov. 31:22; Acts 16:14) and a sign of authority: the kingsof Midian wore purple garments (Judg. 8:26); the wedding carriage ofKing Solomon was upholstered in purple (Song 3:10); the Babylonianking Belshazzar offered purple robes as a reward for service (Dan.5:7). Purple robes were put on Jesus before his crucifixion in amockery of his kingship (John 19:2–5).

Blue,purple, and scarlet were each separately associated with wealth andpower, but when used together these three colors were the epitome ofopulence and, as such, were associated with the divine presence. Thetabernacle curtains were woven from blue, purple, and scarlet yarn(Exod. 26:1), as were the high-priestly garments (28:4–15, 33).The same colors were later used in the temple curtains (2 Chron.3:14). Blue, purple, and red cloths were used for covering the Ark ofthe Covenant and its furnishings (Num. 4:6–12). Jeremiahdescribes idols adorned in blue and purple, an attempt to concealtheir worthlessness (10:9).

Gray.Gray hair indicated old age and thus wisdom (Ps. 71:18; Prov. 16:31).

Green.Green is the color of plants and thus was associated with life-givingfood and therefore God’s blessing. Green plants were given byGod for food (Gen. 1:30), so their removal or destruction was adevastating judgment (Exod. 10:15; Ezek. 17:24; Rev. 8:7). Peoplecould be symbolized as green plants when they were fruitful andblessed (Ps. 92:14; Jer. 17:8) or when they were easily destroyed(2 Kings 19:26; Ps. 37:2).

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

Grief is great sadness or sorrow or the circ*mstances thatproduce such; mourning refers to expressions of grief. Grief andmourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they mayoccur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2Sam.13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Esther 4:3; Isa. 37:1), orrepentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, orboth.

Theexpressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gen. 23:2),wailing (Esther 4:3; Isa. 15:3; Mark 5:38), tearing clothes andwearing sackcloth (Gen. 37:34; 2Sam. 3:31), lying on the ground(2Sam. 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting ondust and ashes (Ezek. 27:30), fasting (2Sam. 3:35; 12:16),singing songs of lament (2Sam. 1:17–27; 3:32–35),pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezra 9:3), cutting the hair(Jer. 7:29), uncovering the head (Lev. 10:6), removing sandals (Ezek.24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7),and employing professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23; Mark5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such asslashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), andthe somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lev. 19:28;Deut. 14:1; cf. 1Kings 18:28).

Thus,grief and mourning were anything but stoic and brief. Grief wasexpressed both physically and vocally, often loudly, with expressionsranging from inarticulate groaning to poetic compositions in song.Although women may have been prominent among professional mourners,expressing grief was not considered unmasculine. Several times Davidwas a leader in expressing grief. That the expression of grief shouldbe brief, relatively dispassionate, and primarily characteristic ofwomen was a Greek development that entered the church through peoplesuch as Augustine, who, for example, felt grieved that he had verybriefly grieved the loss of his mother.

Paul’sadmonition that believers should not grieve as do those who have nohope (1Thess. 4:13) should not be construed as a dictum that itis wrong to grieve. The thought of the resurrection is a comfort in,not a replacement for, grief. Even Jesus wept at the death ofLazarus, knowing full well that he would soon resurrect him (John11:25, 35, 40). Further, saints who have died and gone to heavenlament (Rev. 6:10). Grief is restricted for active-duty priests andonce for Ezekiel, but these are clearly special circ*mstances andillustrate the normalcy of giving expression to grief. Ezekiel was tomoan with a groaning for the dead (often misread as groaningsilently) when his wife died, but he was not to engage in anymourning rites (Ezek. 24:15–27). This illustrated to Judah thecirc*mstances that they would face, without opportunity to mournproperly for their dead. Ezekiel 8:14 indicts the women of Jerusalemfor “mourning for Tammuz,” a pagan ritual involving thecycle of life, death, and rebirth of the Babylonian god Dumuzi.

Songsof lament are common in the OT. David composed a song of lamenthonoring the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2Sam. 1:17–27).After Joab’s unauthorized killing of Abner, David also sang alament for Abner and required Joab to participate in mourning rituals(3:31–37). David also mourned his own sons: the unnamed son ofBathsheba (12:16–18), Amnon (13:30–33), and Absalom(18:33–19:4). In the case of Bathsheba’s son, Davidmourned in advance of the boy’s death, which had beenprophetically proclaimed through Nathan. As the consequences of hissins continued, he progressively became undone in the mourning of hisother sons. Also, funeral songs are used as the form of someprophetic material (Ezek. 19:1–14; 26:17–18; 27:2–9,25–36; cf. Jer. 22:18; Amos 5:16). Not all laments are funeralsongs perse. Compare also the book of Lamentations and thepsalms of lament, also known as complaint psalms.

Expressionsof grief and mourning were called for as part of repentance,combining both fear of punishment and depth of sorrow over sin(2Chron. 34:19; Isa. 15:3; Joel 1:13).

In 1928 a Syrian peasant farmer stumbled by chance onto afunerary vault of ancient provenance about half a mile from theMediterranean coastline of Syria and about six miles north of themodern-day city of Latakia. This unforeseen discovery led to anarchaeological excavation of Tell Ras Shamra (Cape Fennel) by theeminent French excavator Claude Schaeffer. What Schaeffer’steam unearthed was not merely an ancient tomb, but a city completewith palaces, private homes, temples, and streets paved with stone.

Withinthe first year of excavation, the ruins of Ugarit yielded a cache ofclay tablets bearing a cuneiform script in a language hithertounknown. From these mysterious texts scholars deciphered analphabetic script written in a West Semitic language related toCanaanite, Arabic, and biblical Hebrew.

TheKingdom of Ugarit

Thesite of the ancient city of Ugarit, Tell Ras Shamra, is enclosed bytwo small rivers that flow westward into the Mediterranean Sea. Thepresence of water ensured the fertility of the surrounding plain;thus a good crop of cereals, grapes, and olives was available tosupplement the fishing industry as a local supply of food. Thekingdom encompassed about twelve hundred square miles, bounded by thenatural geography of the region. To the west of the site lies theMediterranean, with a port that supplied an important route forinternational trade. To the south, the east, and the north aremountain ranges, including Mount Zaphon, whose majesty is recorded inIsa. 14:13. Indeed, the name “Zaphon” becomes simply ageneral word for “north” in biblical Hebrew.

Thesite of Tell Ras Shamra was occupied as far back as Neolithic times(seventh millennium BC), yet the kingdom of Ugarit properly dates tothe second millennium BC. The time of Ugarit’s greatestflourishing was the period just prior to its destruction: from thefourteenth to the twelfth centuries BC, during the Late Bronze Age.The prosperity of the kingdom reached its height during this period.Ugarit’s coastal access and strategic location as a central hubwithin the matrix of Late Bronze Age superpowers made Ugarit animportant focal point for international trade routes, both maritimeand overland. Late Bronze Age Ugaritic society was diverse andcosmopolitan, a feature perhaps best epitomized by its scribaltraining center, in which tablets bearing inscriptions in severaldifferent languages have been discovered.

Around1200 BC, in approximately the same time frame as the exodus of theHebrews from Egypt, Ugarit met an untimely demise. (Note that somebiblical scholars date the exodus from Egypt during the fifteenthcentury BC rather than the thirteenth.) Royal documents from theEgyptian and Hittite kingdoms, as well as one from Ugarit, record aconcern over a group of invaders known as the Sea Peoples. The SeaPeoples likely originated in the northwest, leaving their mark on thecoasts of Turkey, Cyprus, and the Levant. The descendants of theinvading Sea Peoples remained on the coast of Palestine, and thebiblical text refers to them as the Philistines. The destruction ofUgarit is attributed to these invaders from the sea. Thearchaeological remains of Tell Ras Shamra show that many homes wereabandoned as invaders set the city on fire. Ugarit burned to theground sometime between 1190 and 1185 BC.

TheTexts of Ugarit

Morethan fifteen hundred Ugaritic texts have been discovered sinceexcavations began at Tell Ras Shamra. The texts are written ontablets with wedgelike markings impressed into the clay by scribesusing a triangular-shaped reed stylus. The majority of the texts ofUgarit were found in and around the remains of the royal palacegrounds and temples, but some were found in the homes of high-rankingpalace administrators and businessmen. The subject matter of thesetexts is diverse, and the various genres of written material fromUgarit include official letters, administrative and economic texts,scribal training texts, and religious and literary texts. Thecosmopolitan character of Ugarit is also reflected in its texts.Among the various tablets discovered, many were written in Akkadian,which was the lingua franca of the Late Bronze Age in this region.Still other texts were written in various ancient Near Easternlanguages; Hurrian, Hittite, and Cypro-Minoan, and Egyptianhieroglyphs were found inscribed into some artifacts, as well as uponcylinder seals.

Letters.Theletter documents of Ugarit are formal in style with scriptedintroductions and closings, like most royal letters from the ancientNear East. Two notable examples may be pointed out. The first is aletter from the king of Tyre in Phoenicia (for Iron Age references tothe city of Tyre, see Josh. 19:29; 2Sam. 5:11; Ezek. 28) to theking of Ugarit. The occasion of the letter is the shipwreck of aUgaritic trade vessel bound for Egypt that crashed on the coastlineof Phoenicia after a violent storm. The king of Tyre writes that noneof the ship’s crew survived, and its cargo was lost at sea. Asecond epistolary example is a letter written by the king ofCarchemish in the Hittite Empire (see Isa. 10:9; Jer. 46:2) to thelast king of Ugarit, Ammurapi. The occasion of this epistle is theHittite king’s perceived mistreatment of his daughter who wasmarried to Ammurapi. The letter suggests an impending divorce betweenthe royal couple, detailing the division of their joint property.

Administrativeand economic texts. Theroyal palace and temples provided the driving engine of Ugarit’seconomy. Many discovered texts shed light upon the kinds of goods andactivities that comprised local and international trade. Examples ofadministrative texts include lists of various towns within thekingdom of Ugarit, tributes that such towns paid to the king in theform of goods or labor service, lists of temple personnel withaccompanying salaries, and details of distributed goods to those inroyal service. Examples of economic texts include purchase receiptsand bills of lading from maritime trade for products such as wool,grains, olives, milk, and metal ore.

Scribaltraining texts. Amongthe rich archives of texts at Ugarit, more than one hundred tabletsbear witness to scribal training activities scattered throughout thecity grounds. Scribes were universally employed by royal empiresduring the Late Bronze Age, but the sheer number of texts (thousands)found at Ugarit is unusual for a relatively small excavation site.Archives of texts were found in groups throughout the city, and inmany of these archives excavators found tablets of special interest,called “abecedaries.” An abecedary is a tablet on whichthe cuneiform alphabet is written. The Ugaritic alphabet containedthirty signs in roughly the same order as the Hebrew alphabet,largely the same in content as the English alphabet. In addition toUgaritic abecedaries, a Ugaritic-Akkadian abecedary was found inwhich equivalent phonetic values are given from the Ugaritic alphabetinto Akkadian signs. Lexicons, or word lists, also were discovered,listing words from various ancient Near Eastern languages. Indeed,some of the tablets found in the archives are clearly practicetablets used to train scribes: these tablets display clear signswritten by a scribal teacher at the top of the tablet, with the lessskilled markings of the apprentice scribe written below. Thus, it islikely that Ugarit served as a training center for scribes from allover the ancient Near East, as well as its own.

Religioustexts. Twolarge temples dominate the northern acropolis region of Ugarit: thetemple of Baal, the god of fertility, and the temple of Dagon, thegod of grain. Mythology was the vehicle of religious expression inthe ancient Near East. Stories about the gods communicated somethingof the gods’ purposes and realms of authority. In themythological literature of Ugarit, the pantheon of gods dwelt onMount Zaphon, and from the dwelling place of El, the high god, riversof life-giving water flowed. The name “El” was sharedamong Semitic languages and religions throughout the ancient NearEast, including the OT. The name “El” in the Bible canrefer either to a foreign god (e.g., Deut. 3:24: “What god[’el] is there in heaven or on earth who can do the deeds andmighty works you do?”) or to the God of Israel (e.g., Gen.49:25; Deut. 7:9; Ps. 68:19–20). In the pantheon of Ugarit,El’s female consort was the goddess Asherah (1Kings18:19; Judg. 3:7).

El,however, was a more distant god in the religion of Ugarit, and thecity’s patron god was Baal, the storm god. Baal was associatedwith fertile fields, abundant crops, and the birth of sons anddaughters. The goddess Anat is sometimes described as Baal’sconsort, and at other times as Baal’s sister. Anat is thegoddess of war, and the epic mythological literature of Ugaritportrays her warfare in rather graphic and gruesome detail. Somescholars claim that Prov. 7:22–23 alludes to Anat’swarfare in the portrayal of the adulterous woman.

Someof the same epithets and accomplishments of Baal found in thereligious texts of Ugarit are also attributed to Yahweh in the OT.For example, Baal is called the “Rider of the Clouds” inUgaritic literature, and a similar description of Yahweh is found inPss. 68:4 (“Extol him who rides on the clouds”) and 104:3(“He makes the clouds his chariot and rides on the wings of thewind”). This likely reflects a common ancient Near Easternconcern over the regularity of rain for producing crops, as well as abiblical assertion that Yahweh is superior to Canaanite deities, suchas Baal, who claim authority over the forces of nature. Indeed, theOT mocks the impotence of the Canaanite deity Baal to wield powerover the forces of nature in narratives such as Elijah versus theprophets of Baal (1Kings 18:16–45).

Baalis also portrayed in the religious literature of Ugarit as the godwho conquered the rival gods Sea (Yam) and Death (Motu). The OT givessimilar portrayals of Israel’s God in texts such as Gen. 1:2;Isa. 25:7–8. In Gen. 1:2 God’s Spirit “was hoveringover the waters,” “the deep,” or the primordialwaters from which God brings to life the created world and all ofnature (cf. Job 38:8–11). In Isa. 25:7–8 Yahweh isportrayed as more powerful than death in a text of praise that extolshis power by saying that “he will swallow up death forever.”Again the biblical texts rely upon a stock set of religious symbols,language, and imagery common to ancient Near Eastern peoples toportray Yahweh, the all-powerful, one God of Israel.

Conclusion

Thediscovery of Ugarit was an earthshaking event for biblical studies.Scholars have only begun to garner the gems of knowledge hiddenwithin the remains of this lost civilization. The study of theUgaritic language is invaluable for better understanding biblicalHebrew. Ugaritic sheds light particularly upon rare words and phrasesused in the biblical text, as well as upon literary devices andpoetic structure, such as parallelism and meter. Furthermore, thestudy of Ugarit’s religion illuminates the backdrop ofCanaanite worship, against which is set the worship of Yahweh in theOT. Ugarit provides for us a snapshot of Late Bronze Age Canaan, thecrucible of ancient Near Eastern culture from which the Hebrew Biblewas birthed.

Grief is great sadness or sorrow or the circ*mstances thatproduce such; mourning refers to expressions of grief. Grief andmourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they mayoccur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2Sam.13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Esther 4:3; Isa. 37:1), orrepentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, orboth.

Theexpressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gen. 23:2),wailing (Esther 4:3; Isa. 15:3; Mark 5:38), tearing clothes andwearing sackcloth (Gen. 37:34; 2Sam. 3:31), lying on the ground(2Sam. 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting ondust and ashes (Ezek. 27:30), fasting (2Sam. 3:35; 12:16),singing songs of lament (2Sam. 1:17–27; 3:32–35),pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezra 9:3), cutting the hair(Jer. 7:29), uncovering the head (Lev. 10:6), removing sandals (Ezek.24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7),and employing professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23; Mark5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such asslashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), andthe somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lev. 19:28;Deut. 14:1; cf. 1Kings 18:28).

Thus,grief and mourning were anything but stoic and brief. Grief wasexpressed both physically and vocally, often loudly, with expressionsranging from inarticulate groaning to poetic compositions in song.Although women may have been prominent among professional mourners,expressing grief was not considered unmasculine. Several times Davidwas a leader in expressing grief. That the expression of grief shouldbe brief, relatively dispassionate, and primarily characteristic ofwomen was a Greek development that entered the church through peoplesuch as Augustine, who, for example, felt grieved that he had verybriefly grieved the loss of his mother.

Paul’sadmonition that believers should not grieve as do those who have nohope (1Thess. 4:13) should not be construed as a dictum that itis wrong to grieve. The thought of the resurrection is a comfort in,not a replacement for, grief. Even Jesus wept at the death ofLazarus, knowing full well that he would soon resurrect him (John11:25, 35, 40). Further, saints who have died and gone to heavenlament (Rev. 6:10). Grief is restricted for active-duty priests andonce for Ezekiel, but these are clearly special circ*mstances andillustrate the normalcy of giving expression to grief. Ezekiel was tomoan with a groaning for the dead (often misread as groaningsilently) when his wife died, but he was not to engage in anymourning rites (Ezek. 24:15–27). This illustrated to Judah thecirc*mstances that they would face, without opportunity to mournproperly for their dead. Ezekiel 8:14 indicts the women of Jerusalemfor “mourning for Tammuz,” a pagan ritual involving thecycle of life, death, and rebirth of the Babylonian god Dumuzi.

Songsof lament are common in the OT. David composed a song of lamenthonoring the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2Sam. 1:17–27).After Joab’s unauthorized killing of Abner, David also sang alament for Abner and required Joab to participate in mourning rituals(3:31–37). David also mourned his own sons: the unnamed son ofBathsheba (12:16–18), Amnon (13:30–33), and Absalom(18:33–19:4). In the case of Bathsheba’s son, Davidmourned in advance of the boy’s death, which had beenprophetically proclaimed through Nathan. As the consequences of hissins continued, he progressively became undone in the mourning of hisother sons. Also, funeral songs are used as the form of someprophetic material (Ezek. 19:1–14; 26:17–18; 27:2–9,25–36; cf. Jer. 22:18; Amos 5:16). Not all laments are funeralsongs perse. Compare also the book of Lamentations and thepsalms of lament, also known as complaint psalms.

Expressionsof grief and mourning were called for as part of repentance,combining both fear of punishment and depth of sorrow over sin(2Chron. 34:19; Isa. 15:3; Joel 1:13).

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistentmetrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economyto law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time,distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world,technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects ofthe universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers tolight-years, milligrams to kilograms.

Themetrological systems employed in biblical times span the sameconcepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, andvolume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurementsemployed during the span of biblical times were not nearly asaccurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexistingweight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundingsof both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced thesystems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers.There was great variance between the different standards usedmerchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region,time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honestscales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15;Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore,inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written recordsas well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significantdifferences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurementsin the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity andliquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is tobe expected, especially when we consider modern-dayinconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint= 0.473liters, while 1 US dry pint= 0.550 liters. Thus, all modernequivalents given below are approximations, and even the bestestimates have a margin of error of + 5percent or more.

Weights

Weightsin biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13;Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into variousanimal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom wasinscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement.Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significantamounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatlycomplicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka.Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahsor ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measuremetals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah.1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra.Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight.Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to themodern British pound.

Mina.Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver(Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefinedthe proper weight: “Theshekel is to consist of twentygerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekelsequal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, therewere arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of theservants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servantsvarying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying amonetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver orgold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’wages for a laborer.

Pim.Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).

Shekel.Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent toapproximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weightmeasurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight variedsignificantly at different historical points. Examples include the“royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “commonshekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,”which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25;Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, theshekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent.Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod.25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably isderived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka– 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah– 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra– 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina– 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim– 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel– 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent– 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linearmeasurements

Cubit– 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’sjourney = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth– ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth– 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion– 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia– 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod– 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbathday’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2kilometers

Span– 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion– 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab– 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix– ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor– 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah– 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer– 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros– 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer– 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton– 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah– 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

LiquidVolume

Bath– 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos– 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin– 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log– 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes– 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

LinearMeasurements

Linearmeasurements were based upon readily available natural measurementssuch as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between thethumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method ofmeasurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit.Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, asthe shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance fromthe elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height,width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen.7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximateconversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half formeters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’sjourney.An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a singleor multiple days’ journey as a description of the distancetraveled or the distance between two points: “a day’sjourney” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-dayjourney” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “sevendays” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2).After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyedfor a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth.The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was thebeginning building block of the biblical metrological system forlinear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describethe bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth.Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit,or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the fourfingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’sbrief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table(Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings7:26).

Milion.Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration ofRoman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia.Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as“fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably thedistance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measurethe depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod.Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a generalterm for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance(Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbathday’s journey.Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About2,000 cubits.

Span.Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to threehandbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretchedthumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion.Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai.Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13;John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

LandArea

Seed.The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis ofhow much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings18:32).

Yoke.Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. Inbiblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animalscould plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab.Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer.Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria(2Kings 6:25).

Choinix.Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement,mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to thehomer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularlyof flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 1Kings 5:11; 2Chron.2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquidvolume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra45:14).

Ephah.Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters).Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flourand grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day ofreduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce onlyan ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to thebath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer.Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly ofvarious grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos.3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkeycan carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed adirect link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16:“fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” Alogical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalencesmight look something like this:

1homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros.Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measureof grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer.Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in themeasurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod.16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s dailyfood ration.

Saton.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. Themeasurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven(Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah.Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah,or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various drygoods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).

LiquidVolume

Bath.Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, whichtypically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in themeasurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11),and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos.Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration ofthe Hebrew word bath(see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin.Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek.4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log.Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture,specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes.Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement ofwater at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

Because Scripture sees all things as providentially arrangedand sustained by God’s sovereign power at all times (Heb. 1:3),miracles are not aberrations in an otherwise closed and mechanicaluniverse. Nor are miracles raw demonstrations of divinity designed toovercome prejudice or unbelief and to convince people of theexistence of God (Mark 8:11–12). Still less are they cleverconjuring tricks involving some kind of deception that can beotherwise explained on a purely scientific basis. Rather, God in hisinfinite wisdom sometimes does unusual and extraordinary things tocall attention to himself and his activity. Miracles are divinelyordained acts of God that dramatically alert us to the presence ofhis glory and power and advance his saving purposes in redemptivehistory.

Terminology

Thebiblical writers describe miracles with various terms, such as“signs,” “wonders,” and “miracles”(or “powers”), which can carry various connotations. Asthe word “sign” suggests, divine miracles are significantand should cause us to think more deeply about God in a way that goesbeyond mere amazement or curiosity (Exod. 4:30–31; John 2:11).Not all of God’s signs are miraculous. Some are given as partof his ordering of the natural world (Gen. 1:14) or as anencouragement to faith that God will do as he has said (e.g., therainbow in Gen. 9:8–17; the blood of the Passover lamb in Exod.12:13). (See also Sign.)

Oftencoupled with signs are “wonders” (Jer. 32:21; John 4:48;2Cor. 12:12). If the depiction of miracles as “signs”indicates an appeal to the intellect, that of “wonders”points to the emotions. Miracles evoke astonishment and awe at theone who did them.

TheNT word “miracle” carries the meaning of power andtherefore points to the supernatural source of these events (Luke10:13; Acts 8:13).

Miraclesin the Bible

OldTestament.In the OT, miracles are not evenly distributed but rather are foundin greater number during times of great redemptive significance, suchas the exodus and the conquest of Canaan. Miracles were performedalso during periods of apostasy, such as in the days of theninth-century prophets Elijah and Elisha. Common to both of theseeras is the powerful demonstration of the superiority of God overpagan deities (Exod. 7–12; 1Kings 18:20–40).

NewTestament. Inthe NT, miracles often are acts of compassion, but more significantlythey attest the exalted status of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 2:22) andthe saving power of his word (Heb. 2:3–4). In the SynopticGospels, they reveal the coming of God’s kingdom and theconquest of Satan’s dominion (Matt. 8:16–17; 12:22–30;Mark 3:27). They point to the person of Jesus as the promised Messiahof OT Scripture (Matt. 4:23; 11:4–6). John shows a preferencefor the word “signs,” and his Gospel is structured aroundthem (John 20:30–31). According to John, the signs that Jesusperformed were such that only the one who stood in a uniquerelationship to the Father as the Son of God could do them.

Miraclesand faith.Just as entrenched skepticism is injurious to faith, so too is naivecredulity, for although signs and wonders witness to God, falseprophets also perform them “to deceive, if possible, even theelect” (Matt. 24:24). Christians are to exercise discernmentand not be led astray by such impostors (Matt. 7:15–20).

Therelationship between miracles and faith is not as straightforward assometimes supposed. Miracles do not necessarily produce faith, nordoes faith necessarily produce miracles. Miracles were intended tobring about the faith that leads to eternal life (John 20:31), butnot all who witnessed them believed (John 10:32). Additionally, Jesusregarded a faith that rested only on the miracle itself as precarious(Mark 8:11–13; John 2:23–25; 4:48), though better than nofaith at all (John 10:38). Faith that saves must ultimately find itsgrounding in the person of Jesus as the Son of God.

Itis also clear that although Jesus always encouraged faith in thosewho came to him for help (Mark 9:23), and that he deliberatelylimited his miraculous powers in the presence of unbelief (Mark 6:5),many of his miracles were performed on those who did not or could notexercise faith (Matt. 12:22; Mark 1:23–28; 5:1–20; Luke14:1–4).

Thefact that Jesus performed miracles was never an issue; rather, hisopponents disputed the source of his power (Mark 3:22). Argumentsabout his identity were to be settled by appeal not to miracles butto the word of God (Matt. 22:41–46).

Thefunction of miracles.Miracle accounts function in a symbolic and prophetic manner. Hence,the cursing of the fig tree was prophetic of the coming judgment(Mark 11:12–21). The unusual two-stage healing of the blind manof Bethsaida symbolized Peter’s incomplete understanding ofJesus’ messiahship (Mark 8:22–33).

Themiraculous element of Jesus’ ministry carries an eschatologicalsignificance, pointing to the order of things in the age to come. Forexample, the nature miracles (Mark 4:35–41) look forward to theredemption of creation itself, which is presently subject tofrustration and decay (Rom. 8:20–21); the healing miraclespoint to a day when disease and deformity will be abolished (Rev.21:4); and miracles in which the dead are raised to life anticipate atime when death itself will be no more (Rev. 20:14; 21:4). From thisperspective, the miracles are a gracious foretaste of a far moreglorious future.